Country  Life  Education  Series 


THE  APPLE 

WILKINSON 


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This  book  was  presented  by 

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MAR  1  i  2001 
OCT  2  1  ZOO? 


200M/09-98-981815 


COUNTRY  LIFE  EDUCATION 
SERIES 

Edited   by   Charles  William    Burkett,   recently  Director 

of  Experiment  Station,  Kansas  State  Agricultural 

College ;   Editor  of  American  Agriculturist 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 
By  Charles  S.   Plumb,  Ohio  State  University 

PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

By  Eugene  Davenport,  University  of  Illinois 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 

By  Benjamin  Minge  Duggar,  Cornell  University 

SOIL  FER  TILITT  AND  PERMANENT 
AGRICULTURE 

By  Cyril  George  Hopkins,  University  of  Illinois 

PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY 
CULTURE 

By  John  Henry  Robinson,  Editor  of  Farm-Poultry 

GARDEN  FARMING 

By  Lee  Cleveland  Corbett,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture 

THE  APPLE 

By  Albert  E.  Wilkinson,  Cornell  University 

Other  volumes  in  preparation 


I'l  ATE  I.    REPRESENTATIVE  APPLES 

A  few  of  the  representative  apples  offered  for  sale  on  the  general  market.    They  are 

good  examples  of  the  product  obtained  from  the  northeast,  northwest,  midwest,  and 

south.   Each  personifies  a  definite  fruit  region.   (Half  size) 


Baldwin 
Winter  lianana 
Vork  Imperial 


Mcintosh  Red 

Rhode  Island  (ireening 

Rome  Iicauty 


THE  APPLE 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  DEALING  WITH  THE 

LATEST  MODERN  PRACTICES  OF 

APPLE  CULTURE 


BY 

ALBERT  E.  WILKINSON 

DEPARTMENT   OF   HORTICULTURE,   CORNELL    UNIVERSITY 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON     •     NEW  YORK     •     CHICAGO     •     LONDON 
ATLANTA     •     DALLAS     •     COLUMBUS     •     SAN   FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  191  5,  BY 
ALBERT  E.  WILKINSON 

ALL   RIGHTS    RESERVED 

115-10 


Clic    atficn.Ttim    ErrsS 


PREFACE 

Much  has  been  published  on  apple-growing.  Growers  and  others 
have  written  many  books  dealing  with  the  subject ;  experiment 
stations  have  carried  on  various  kinds  of  investigations  to  deter- 
mine conclusively  the  most  efficient  methods  in  all  the  subdivisions 
of  the  culture  of  this  king  of  fruits  ;  bulletins  have  been  issued  in 
large  numbers,  until  fruit  growers  are  overwhelmed  with  the  mass 
of  information  that  has  been  collected  about  apples. 

After  a  careful  perusal  of  all  the  available  writings  on  apple- 
growing,  the  author  of  this  book  became  deeply  convinced  of  the 
need  of  a  single  volume  that  would  present  in  a  logical  manner  the 
most  essential  of  the  recent  practical  ideas  and  methods.  Such  a 
book  he  has  endeavored  to  prepare.  While  he  has  drawn  on  his 
own  experience  in  the  subject,  he  has  also  culled  largely  from  the 
writings  of  others,  and  particularly  from  the  experimental  evidence 
they  have  offered. 

In  presenting  this  work  the  author  hopes  that  the  investigator 
will  gain  easier  access  to  much  that  will  aid  him  in  a  study  of  the 
question  ;  that  the  farmer  or  fruit  specialist  will  find  just  the  up- 
to-date  information  and  directions  needed  ;  that  the  amateur  will 
feel  confidence  in  basing  his  cultural  requirements  on  the  matter 
herein  contained  ;  and,  particularly,  that  the  student  may  find  here 
the  subject  matter  and  the  arrangement  required  for  a  systematic 
course  in  apple-growing. 

The  field  covered  has  been  made  broad  enough  to  include  the 
practices  of  a  large  number  of  the  typical  apple-producing  regions 
of  North  America.  In  so  highly  specialized  an  industry  as  this, 
a  somewhat  comprehensive  treatment  is  felt  to  be  decidedly  im- 
portant. Otherwise  the  special  practices  followed  in  limited  areas 
are  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  rules  of  general  application. 

For  material  and  suggestions  the  author  wishes  to  acknowledge 
his  deep  indebtedness  to  all  experiment  stations  in  general,  and, 
in  particular,  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and 


vi  THE  APPLE 

the  experiment  stations  of  Iowa,  Oregon,  Geneva,  Cornell,  Rhode 
Island,  Georgia,  Illinois,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Connecticut, 
Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Maine,  Ohio,  North  Carolina,  New 
Jersey,  Virginia,  Nebraska,  Utah,  and  Washington  ;  to  the  reports 
of  the  Iowa  State  Horticultural  Society,  the  W'estern  New  York 
Horticultural  Society,  the  Illinois  Horticultural  Society,  the  Ver- 
mont Horticultural  Society,  the  American  Pomological  Society, 
and  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Ottawa  ;  and  to  Farm  and 
Fireside,  Better  Fruits,  The  Fruit  and  Prod/tee  Distributor,  The 
Harden  Magazine,  The  Country  Gentleman,and  The  Fruit-Grower. 
Grateful  acknowledgments  for  aid  are  due  Mr.  Madison  Cooper 
and  Professor  C.  S.  Wilson,  pomologist  at  the  New  York  State 
College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University.  The  latter  has  read 
the  proof  and  made  many  valuable  suggestions. 

ALBERT  E.  WILKINSON 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I.    SELECTION  OF  SITE        

Climate,  I  —  Frosts,  3 — Winter  temperature,  5  —  Summer  temperature, 
5  —  Exposure,  7  —  Soil,  8  —  Water  supply  in  the  soil,  8  —  Surface, 
drainage,  air,  and  water,  9 

CHAPTER  II.  ADAPTATION  OF  VARIETIES  TO  SOILS  ....  10 
Baldwin  soils,  12 —  Ben  Davis  and  Gano,  14  —  Fall  Pippin,  15  —  Grimes, 
15  —  Ilubbardston,  17  —  King,  17  —  Mammoth  Black  Twig,  iS  —  Newtown 
Pippin,  19  —  Northern  Spy,  21 —  Rhode  Island  Greening,  22  —  Rome 
Beauty,  23  —  Stayman  Winesap,  24  —  Wagener,  24  —  Winesap,  25  — 
York   Imperial,   25 

CHAPTER  III.    ORCHARD  HEATING 27 

The  type  of  heater  to  use,  27 — Number  of  heaters  per  acre,  28  —  The 
oil  to  use,  29 — How  to  store  the  oil,  29 — A  method  of  distributing  the 
oil,  30  —  How  to  light  the  pots,  31 — When  to*  light  heaters,  31  —  Pre- 
dicting the  temperature,  31 — The  sling  psychrometer,  32  —  How  to 
make  an  observation,  32  —  Heating  the  small  home  orchard,  34  —  The 
need  of  thermometers,  34  —  The  probable  cost  for  a  ten-acre  orchard,  35 

CHAPTER  IV.    SELECTION  OF  THE  TREES 36 

First-class  stock,  36 — Standards  versus  dwarfs,  39  —  Pedigree  trees,  40 
—  When  to  order,  41  —  From  whom  to  order,  41 — What  to  do  with  the 
trees  when  received,  42 

CHAPTER  V.    WINDBREAKS 43 

Object  of  windbreaks,  43  —  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  wind- 
breaks, 43  —  Where  to  plant  the  windbreak,  47  —  The  trees:  how  to 
plant,  48 — When  to  use  windbreaks,   50 

CHAPTER     VI.      THE     LSI',     OF     STABLE     MANURE     IN     THE 

ORCHARD 5I 

Iiefore  planting  the  orchard,  51— Use  of  manure  after  the  trees  have 
been  planted,  51 

CHAPTER  VII.    PREPARING  LAND  FOR  AN  ORCHARD    ....     53 

Plowing,  53  —  How  to  plow,  54  —  Rolling,  55  —  Harrowing,  56  —  Use  of 
fining  tools,  57 

CHAPTER  VIII.    LAYING  OUT  AN  ORCHARD 58 

Large  orchards,  58  —  Smaller  orchards,  69  —  Home  orchard,  69 

vii 


viii  THE  APPLE 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  IX.    PLANTING 71 

Fall  versus  spring  planting,  71 — Planting  board,  72  —  Hand  digging 

and  planting,  73 — Plowing  out  and  planting,  74  —  Digging  holes  with 

-a'Aynamite,  75  —  Principles  of  blasting,  75 —  Preparing  caps  and  fuse,  76 

,    •  .    Tamping,  79 — Firing,  79 — What   to   do   in   case  of  misfire,  79  — 

-oC)>  Egging  holes  with  dynamite.  So  —  Watering,  82 

of  the  Iov 

Horticu1*APTER  X-    PROPER  PRUNING 83 

The  knowledge  a  pruner  should  have,  83 — Why  we  prune,  S3 — When 
to  prune,  84  —  Root  pruning,  85  —  Pruning  the  top,  85  —  Pruning  one- 
year-old  tree,  87  —  Second-year  pruning,  88  —  Third-  and  fourth-year 
prunings,  89  —  The  effect  of  pruning,  90  —  Influence  on  "off"  years, 
90  —  What  to  do  with  thinnings,  90 

CHAPTER  XI.    COVER  CROPS 91 

Benefits  derived  from  cover  crops,  91  —  Bad  effects  of  cover  crops,  92 

—  Classification  of  cover  crops,  93  —  Erect  snow-holding  versus  pros- 
trate mulch-forming  cover  crops,  93 — Frost-killing  versus  frost-resistant 
cover  crops,  94  —  The  best  cover  crop,  95  —  General  management,  96 

—  Management  of  a  young  orchard,  96 — Shade  crops,  97 

CHAPTER  XII.    FERTILIZING 99 

Advantages  and  disadvantages,  99 — Mineral  constituents,  100  — 
Functions  and  effects  of  minerals,  101 — What  to  use,  107  —  Time  and 
method  of  application,  109  —  The  actual  needs  of  an  orchard,  1 10  — 
The  plan,  11 1  —  Method  of  application,  111 

CHAPTER  XIII.    CULTIVATION 113 

Objects  of  cultivation,  113  —  Tools  for  cultivation,  117  —  Plows,  117  — 
Harrows,  119  —  Method  and  time  of  cultivation,  121  —  The  young 
orchard,  121 — The  older  trees,  122 

CHAPTER  XIV.    SOD  CULTURE   VERSUS  TILLAGE 123 

Relative  merits  of  the  two  systems,  124  —  General  advice,  130 

CHAPTER  XV.    IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE 131 

Water  supplies  for  orchards,  131 — Location  of  the  trees,  134  —  Furrow 
irrigation,  136  —  Earthen  head  ditches,  136 — Short  tubes  in  head 
ditches,  137 — Head  flumes,  139  —  Pipes  and  standpipes,  141  —  Making 
furrows,  143  —  Applying  water  to  furrows,  144 — The  basin  method,  146 

—  The  check  method,  147  —  Time  to  irrigate,  148  —  Number  of  irri- 
gations necessary  in  a  season,  149  —  Duty  of  water  in  irrigating  apple 
orchards,  149  —  Evaporation  losses,  152  —  Percolation  losses,  153  — 
Winter  irrigation,  153  —  Drainage  in  irrigated  orchards,  155  —  Drainage 
in  unirrigated  orchards,  1 56 

CHAPTER  XVI.    INTERCROPPING 1 5S 

What  crops  to  use,  15S  —  Rotation  for  young  orchard,  163 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XVII.    THINNING 164 

Benefits  from  thinning,  166 — Methods  of  thinning,  166  —  Time  to 
thin,  167  —  Cost  of  thinning,  167  —  Increased  value  of  the  thinned 
crop,  16S  —  Does  thinning  pay?   169 

CHAPTER  XVIII.    INSECTS 170 

Flat-headed  borer,  172  —  Round-headed  borer,  173  —  Shot-hole  borer, 
174  —  Oyster-shell  scale,  174 — San  Jose  scale,  175  —  Woolly  aphis,  1S0 

—  Green-apple  leaf  aphis,  181 — Leaf  crumpler,  182  —  Leaf  roller,  183 

—  Leaf  skeletonizer,  183  —  Cankerworm,  184 — Fall  webworm,  1S4  — 
Palmer  worm,  184  —  Tent  caterpillar,  185  —  Apple-leaf  trumpet-miner, 
185  —  Brown-tail  moth,  185  —  Damage  by  the  brown-tail  moth,  186  — 
History  of  the  brown-tail  moth,  1S6  —  Where  to  look  for  the  brown- 
tail  moth,  iSS  —  Natural  enemies  of  the  brown-tail  moth,  189  —  Gypsy 
moth,  1S9 — Damage  caused  by  the  gypsy  moth,  189  —  History  of  the 
gypsy  moth,  190  —  Where  to  look  for  the  gypsy  moth,  192  —  Gypsy- 
moth  remedies,  193  —  Natural  enemies  of  the  gypsy  moth,  194  — 
Bud  moth,  195  —  The  apple-bud  moth,  195  —  Pear  thrips,  195  —  Cod- 
ling moth,  196 — History  of  the  codling  moth,  190 — Plum  curculio, 
201  —  Description  and  history  of  the  plum  curculio,  202  —  Green-fruit 
worm,  205  —  Apple  maggot,  207 

CHAPTER  XIX.    DISEASES 209 

Root  gall,  209 — Root  rot,  210  —  Pear  blight,  210  —  Bitter  rot,  211  — 
Black  rot  and  canker,  212  —  European  apple  canker,  213  —  Blister 
canker,  213  —  Decay  or  rot,  214  —  Scab,  215  —  Pear  blight,  215  —  Mil- 
dew, 215  —  Cedar  rust,  215  —  Apple  scab,  217  —  Apple-leaf  spot,  220 

—  Blight,  221 — Scab,  221  —  Black  rot,  221  —  Blotch,  222  —  Bitter  rot, 
223  —  Fruit  spot,  225  —  Cedar  rust  and  scab,  226 — Sooty  blotch  and 
fly-speck  fungus,  226 — Spongy  dry  rot,  227  —  Pink  rot,  227 

CHAPTER    XX.    SPRAYING 230 

The  need  of  spraying,  233 — What  to  spray  for,  234  —  Lime-sulphur, 
self-boiled,  234  —  Concentrated  lime-sulphur,  commercial,  236 — Con- 
centrated lime-sulphur,  homemade,  237  —  Bordeaux  mixture,  238  — 
Whale-oil  soap,  239  —  Kerosene  emulsion,  240 — Black  Leaf  40,  240 

—  Paris  green,  240 — -Commercial  arsenate  of  lead,  240 — Homemade 
arsenate  of  lead,  240 — Miscible  oils,  241 — Other  materials,  243  — 
When  to  apply  the  spray,  243  — Spraying  schedule  for  apples  recom- 
mended by  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University,  245  —  How 
to  apply  the  spray,  246  —  Spraying  machinery,  tools,  etc.,  249 — Im- 
portant points  about  spray  pumps,  250 — Types  of  sprayers,  254  — 
Results  of  spraying,  257  —  Cost  of  spraying,  258 

CHAPTER  XXI.    MISCELLANEOUS  INJURIES 260 

Injury  by  wind,  260  —  Injury  by  carelessness,  261  —  Injury  by  animals, 
261  —  Injury  by  mice,  262  —  Injury  from  rabbits,  264 — Injury  from 
deer,  264 


x  THE  APPLE 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XXII.    TICKING 266 

How  to  pick,  267  —  Equipment  for  picking,  268  —  Organization  of  the 
picking  force,  269 

CHAPTER  XXIII.    GRADING 270 

Reasons  for  better  grading,  270  —  Grading  rules  and  laws,  271  — 
Methods  of  grading,  281 — The  Schellenberger  machine  and  how  it 
works,  285  —  The  Woods  grading  machine  and  how  it  works,  289 

CHAPTER  XXIV.    PACKING 293 

Which  package  to  use,  293 —  Box  material,  295 —  Lining  paper,  296  — 
Layer  paper,  296  —  Wrapping  paper,  297 — Wrapping  the  apple,  297  — 
Packing  table,  299  —  Packing  the  box,  300  —  The  bulge,  305  —  The 
box  press,  305  —  Labeling,  308  —  The  standard  barrel,  308  —  Packing 
table,  308  —  Filling  and  tailing,  310  —  Papering,  310  — The  barrel  press, 
312  —  Labeling,  312  —  Comparative  cost  of  boxes  and  barrels,  3 1 2 

CHAPTER  XXV.    MARKETING 314 

General  conditions,  314  —  Production  in  the  United  States,  316  —  De- 
crease in  number  of  trees  of  bearing  age,  317  —  Number  of  apple  trees 
and  production  by  states,  317  —  Shipping,  318  —  Consignments  on 
commission,  320  —  The  jobber,  324  —  The  retailer,  324  —  Association 
selling,  324  —  Efficient  distribution,  326  —  New  markets,  327  —  Ex- 
port, 328 — Selling  fancy  apples,  329  —  Cost  of  selling  compared  with 
cost  of  growing,  330  —  Advertising,  330 — Methods  of  attracting 
attention,  332 

CHAPTER  XXVI.    STORAGE 333 

Apple  storage,  333  —  Temperature  for  storage,  334  —  Function  of  tem- 
perature, 335  —  Time  for  storing,  335  —  Removal  from  storage,  336  — 
Wrappers,  336 — Packages,  336 — Importance  of  unbroken  skin  on 
apples  for  cold  storage,  337  —  Apple  scald,  337  —  Preventing  scald,  338 

—  Frost-proof  building  for  apple  storage,  339  —  Storage  of  apples  in 
the  home,  340 — Commercial  cold-storage  houses,  340 —  Ice  cold  stor- 
age, 340 — The  Dexter  system,  344  —  Other  systems,  344  —  Mechanical 
refrigeration,  344 — Ventilation  of  cold-storage  rooms,  348  —  Cold  stor- 
age in  transit,  349  —  Precooling,  349  —  Combination  of  ice  making 
and  precooling,  350  —  Cold-storage  precooling,  350  —  Precooling  in 
cars,  351  —  Cooperation  in  storage,  351 

CHAPTER  XXVII.    BY-PRODUCTS 353 

Cider,  353  —  Preservation  of  cider,  354  —  Champagne  cider,  355  — 
Vinegar,  355  —  Jelly,  356 — Pomace,  356 — Marmalade,  358  —  Evapo- 
ration on  a  small  scale,  358  —  Evaporation  on  a  large  scale,  359  — 
Apples  suitable  for  evaporation,  360  —  Paring,  362  —  Trimming,  362  — 
Bleaching,   362  —  Slicing,   363  —  Crates   and   trays,   364  —  Racks,   364 

—  Capacity    of   floor   space    and    racks,    364  —  Oiling   the    floors    and 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

racks,  365  —  Turning  the  fruit,  365  —  Heating  apparatus,  365  —  Fuel, 
366  —  Temperature,  367  —  Time  required  for  proper  drying,  367  — 
How  far  to  carry  the   drying,  367 — Curing  room,  368  —  Waste,  368 

—  Proportion  of  evaporated  fruit  from  a  bushel  of  fresh  apples,  368  — 
Grading  and  packing,  368  —  The  cannery,  370  —  Canning,  370 

CHAPTER  XXVIII.    COOPERATION 372 

How  to  cooperate,  372  —  Relation  of  members  to  cooperation,  ^73  — 
Advertising,  373  —  Growers'  and  shippers'  organizations,  373 

CHAPTER  XXIX.    COSTS,  YIELDS,  AND  PROFITS 375 

The  cost  of  an  acre  of  apple  trees,  375  —  Cost  of  producing  a  barrel 
of  apples,  376 — Cost  of  producing  a  bushel  of  apples,  377  —  Cost 
of  selling  a  bushel  of  apples,  377  —  Yields  of  apples,  378  —  Retail 
prices,  381 — Wholesale  prices,  382  —  Profits,  382 

CHAPTER  XXX.    GROWING  APPLES  FOR  THE  HOME     .    .    .    .    3S4 
General  advice,  384  —  Insects  and  diseases,  386 — Pruning,  386  —  Fer- 
tilizers, 3S7 — Picking  the  fruit,  387  —  Miscellaneous  advice,  387 

CHAPTER  XXXI.    RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS     .     .    388 
Is  renovating  practicable  ?   38S  —  Method   of  procedure,  392  —  Diag- 
nosis, 392  —  Thinning  the  orchard,  392  —  Pruning,  393  —  What  to  do 
with  wounds,  395  —  Scraping,  395  —  Cavity  work,  395  —  Bracing,  396 

—  Soil,  396 — Plowing  and  harrowing,  397  —  Dynamiting,  397  —  Fer- 
tilizers, 397 —  Stable  manure,  398  —  Potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  398  — 
Applications,  398  —  Cover  crops,  399  —  Orchards  poorly  situated,  399 

—  Spraying,  400  —  Grafting,  400  —  When  to  graft,  400  —  What  to 
graft,  401 — The  after-treatment,  401  —  Summary,  402  —  Examples  of 
successful  renovation,  402  —  A  Vermont  orchard,  405 


CHAPTER  XXXII.    PROPAGATION 


Seedlings,  407  —  Budding,  407  —  Root-grafting,  408  —  Comparison  of 
budding  and  root-grafting,  409  —  Whip-grafting,  410 — Cleft-grafting, 
410  —  Time  to  graft,  412  —  Other  forms  of  grafting,  412  —  Grafting 
wax,  412  —  Selection  of  scions,  413  —  Relation  between  stock  and 
scion,  413 


CHAPTER  XXXIII.    POLLINATION 414 

Self-sterile  trees,  414  —  Pollen-carriers,  417  —  Pollination  by  hand,  417 

CHAPTER  XXXIV.    BREEDING 418 

The  flower,  418 —  Methods  of  emasculation,  418  —  Gathering  pollen,  420 
—  How  to  apply  pollen,  421  — When  to  make  application,  422  —  Plant- 
ing, 423  —  Crosses,  423  — Aim  in  breeding,  424  —  Bud-selection,  425  — 
Appearance  of  the  fruit,  426 


THE  APPLE 


l'.U'.K 


CHAPTER      XXXV.       EXHIBITS,      SCORING,      JUDGING,      DE- 

SCRIBING I->S 

Exhibits,  428 — Preparing  fruit  for  exhibition.  428  —  What  fruit  to 
show,  429 — How  to  show  fruit,  429  —  Apple  prize  list  of  the  New 
York  State  Fair,  429  —  Scoring,  433  —  Score  cards,  434 — Essentials 
for  judging,  437  —  Describing  fruit,  437 

CHAPTER  XXXVI.    COLOR 439 

Influence  of  fertilizers,  439  —  Experiments  with  wood  ashes,  439 —  Ex- 
periment with  basic-slag  meal,  443 —  Experiments  with  nitrogen,  443  — 
Influence  of  cultivation  on  color,  443  —  Influence  of  light  on  color.  444 
—  The  chief  influence  on  color,  445 — Effect  of  iron  on  color,  445  — 
Heredity  and  variation  as  affecting  color,  446  —  Conclusions,  447 

CHAPTER  XXXVII.    FRUIT-GROWING  IX  VARIOUS  SECTIONS 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 1 48 

The  Piedmont  and  Blue  Ridge  regions,  44S  —  The  Pacific  Northwest, 
^50  —  Apple-growing  in  western  New  York,  457 — The  Ozark  region, 
462  —  The  Nova  Scotia  section,  464 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII.    VARIETIES 467 

The  best  varieties  for  the  small  home  lot,  473  —  The  best  varieties 
for  the  farm  or  commercial  orchard,  474  —  Varieties  for  the  local 
market,  476  —  Varieties  for  the  general  market,  476 — Varieties  for 
permanent  trees,  476 — Fillers,  476 — Box  trade,  477  —  The  individual 
dessert  trade,  478 — Export  trade,  478 — Varieties  for  storage,  479  — 
Varieties  for  cider,  479 — Varieties  for  drying,  480 — Strongly  colored 
varieties,  480  — Older  varieties,  480  —  Newer  varieties,  480 

APPENDIX 481 

Tables  on  prices  in  New  York  market  for  thirty  years,  481  —  State- 
ment on  shipments  from  western  New  York,  4S6 — Preferences  of 
markets,  4S7 

INDEX 4^9 


THE   APPLE 

CHAPTER  I 
SELECTION  OF  SITE 

Many  factors  present  themselves  as  important  when  the  future 
location  of  a  proposed  orchard  is  being  considered.  Some  of  the 
chief  ones  will  be  discussed,  in  order  that  they  may  serve  as  guides 
for  consideration  by  individuals  interested  in  establishing  orchards 
of  apple  trees. 

Climate.  Perhaps  the  most  important  single  factor  in  the  loca- 
tion of  a  site  for  an  apple  orchard  is  that  of  climate.  It  has  been 
found  after  careful  observations  that  certain  locations  seem  to  be 
more  favorable  for  the  growing  of  apples  than  other  sites  in  the 
neighborhood.  Careful  survey  has  shown  that  the  daily  change  of 
temperature,  or  its  range  during  the  day  and  night,  has  an  impor- 
tant bearing  upon  this  question.  By  daily  range,  or  change,  is 
meant  the  difference  in  the  thermometer  reading  between  the 
warmest  part  of  the  day  and  the  coolest  part  of  the  night. 

It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  where  the  range  of  tem- 
perature exceeds  20  degrees,  the  blooms  on  the  trees  are  injured 
by  the  sudden  change.  This  change  is  quite  marked  during  the 
spring,  when  bright,  warm,  sunny  days  are  followed  by  cold  nights. 
The  results  from  these  extreme  temperatures  are  that  the  warm 
days  force  out  the  blossoms  quite  rapidly,  causing  the  growth  to  be 
sappy  and  tender.  This  growth  does  not  seem  to  be  able  to  with- 
stand the  cold  nights,  and  the  fact  is  that  the  growth  loses  its 
vitality  and  is  therefore  stunted.  This  may  often  happen  although 
a  frost  may  not  occur  during  the  night. 

Careful  observations  have  determined  that  a  climate  suitable  for 
growing  apples  should  be  one  in  which  comparatively  small  change 
of  temperature  occurs. 


THE  APPLE 


Immediately  one  asks,  Where  are  these  places  located  ?  Gener- 
ally speaking,  they  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  unsheltered  interior 
or  at  high  elevations,  but  they  may  be  found  in  the  vicinity  where 
the  influence  of  large  bodies  of  water,  such  as  the  oceans,  lakes, 
and  rivers,  is  predominant.  The  reason  for  the  water  influence  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  water  changes  its  temperature  very  slowly, 
and  the  change  from  day  to  night  is  very  slight.  The  air  over  a 
body  of  water  partakes  of  this  characteristic  and  passes  it  on,  to 


PS 

Kg; 

IlliSKI 

I 

Fig.  i.    Falling  fruit 
The  effect  of  extremely  early  frost  in  a  poor  location 

a  certain  degree,  to  the  air  over  the  adjacent  lands.  This,  then,  re- 
sults in  making  the  climate  near  large  bodies  of  water  cooler  during 
the  day,  with  but  a  slight  range,  or  degree  change.  The  growth  of 
the  tree,  especially  the  blossoms,  is  thus  somewhat  retarded  and 
therefore  more  hardy  ; .  and,  not  being  chilled  during  the  night,  the 
tender  blossoms  are  able  to  perform  their  functions. 

Notable  examples  of  the  influence  of  large  bodies  of  water  upon 
the  daily  range  of  temperature  are  the  regions  near  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coasts,  where  the  range  is  1 6  degrees  or  less ;  also 
those  near  the  Great  Lakes,  the  large  rivers,  and  many  other 
bodies  of  inland  water.    New  York  and  other  states  where  smaller 


SELECTION  OF  SITE  3 

lakes  are  common  have  locations  which  are  particularly  favorable 
for  apple-growing,  as  far  as  climate  is  concerned. 

Frosts.  Closely  allied  to  climate  are  the  very  destructive  spring 
frosts.  There  is  scarcely  a  locality  in  the  northeastern  states  where 
apple  trees,  especially  the  blossoms,  are  immune  from  injury  from 
spring  frosts.  It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated,  however,  that 
close  proximity  to  a  body  of  water  has  a  tendency  to  minimize  the 
frequency  of  spring  frost.  Careful  notes  upon  condition  during 
frosty  periods  in  the  spring  have  been  taken  upon  orchards  near 
lakes  and  rivers  and  also  upon  orchards  at  some  distance  from  a 
body  of  water.  Comparison  of  these  has  shown  that  the  injury  is  less 
frequent  where  the  influence  of  the  water  is  felt.  A  good  example 
of  this  is  Ithaca,  New  York,  situated  upon  the  shores  of  Cayuga 
Lake,  where  killing  frost  has  only  occurred  four  times  during  a 
period  of  thirty-two  years,  while  at  Cortland,  twenty  miles  inland 
from  Ithaca,  there  have  been  six  killing  frosts  in  eighteen  years. 

Nevertheless,  even  these  seemingly  frost-protected  belts  are 
not  entirely  free  from  injury.  The  Delaware  peach  crop  is 
produced  on  land  which  lies  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
Chesapeake  Bay.  Still  it  has  been  destroyed  or  badly  injured  some 
years  by  late  spring  frosts. 

Considering  the  influence  that  is  exerted  in  protecting  fruit  on 
land  situated  near  large  bodies  of  water,  it  is  found  that  the  most 
important  effects  are : 

1.  That  the  air  being  cooler  during  the  day,  the  rapidity  of 
growth  of  the  blossoms  is  retarded. 

2.  That  as  the  night  air  is  but  slightly  cooler  than  the  day  air, 
the  change,  or  range,  of  temperature  is  but  little.  Thus  the  injury 
from  frosts  is  prevented. 

Even  when  at  some  distance,  a  large  lake,  such  as  are  the  Great 
Lakes,  is  often  sufficient  to  make  apple-growing  quite  profitable 
over  a  large  amount  of  land.  This  is  particularly  noticeable  in 
the  influence  which  Lake  Ontario  exerts  upon  a  large  part  of  the 
western  and  northwestern  sections  of  the  state  of  New  York. 
This  particular  section  is  further  aided  by  its  innumerable  smaller 
lakes,  which  in  many  cases  are  sufficient  to  make  the  farm  orchard 
more  profitable,  especially  if  the  orchards  are  located  so  as  to 
obtain  the  full  influence  of  this  smaller  body  of  water. 


4  THE  APPLE 

Near  other  smaller  lakes  or  even  rivers  or  ponds,  if  the  orchard 
is  properly  located  to  receive  the  maximum  effect  of  the  water,  it 
may  be  quite  profitable  even  in  an  otherwise  frosty  region.  The 
best  location  adjoining  these  bodies  of  water  seems  to  be  on  the 
south  or  east  side,  because  during  frosty  nights  the  wind  is  often 
from  the  north  or  west ;  therefore  the  warmer  air  would  have  a 
tendency  to  be  blown  toward  such  a  location. 

Positive  figures  are  not  obtainable  upon  the  amount  of  heat  given 
off  by  a  certain  body  of  water,  but  the  following  may  give  some 
idea  of  the  amount  of  heat  given  off  by  water  as  it  cools  during 
the  night. 

According  to  O'Gara's  x  figures,  if  seventy  oil  pots  per  acre  are 
sufficient  to  hold  the  temperature  in  an  orchard,  during  quite  a 
frosty  night,  4  degrees  above  that  of  the  air  surrounding  the 
orchard,  actual  tests  have  demonstrated  that  a  body  of  water  one 
foot  deep  and  an  acre  in  extent  will  give  off  considerably  more  heat 
than  the  seventy  oil  pots  during  the  night  where  there  is  a  decrease 
in  the  surrounding  temperature  of  1  degree  per  hour.   ■ 

Not  all  of  this  heat  from  the  water  is  available  to  an  orchard. 
However,  if  it  is  properly  located  a  favorable  wind  would  cause 
the  heated  air  to  affect  the  trees  appreciably. 

Records  of  temperature  to  show  this  effect  are  occasionally  avail- 
able. For  a  period  of  twenty  years  records  were  kept  at  Coopers- 
town,  New  York  (which  is  situated  near  the  southern  part  of 
Otsego  Lake),  and  also  at  New  Lisbon,  New  York  (about  fifteen 
miles  inland  and  toward  the  west  from  Cooperstown).  These  two 
places  are  ideal  for  comparison  in  regard  to  this  matter,  owing 
to  their  being  practically  at  the  same  elevation. 

At  Cooperstown  the  average  date  of  the  last  frost  in  the  spring 
has  been  ascertained  as  May  8.  Killing  frosts  have  occurred  after 
May  1  in  only  twelve  out  of  twenty  years.  During  this  time  no 
frost  has  been  recorded  later  than  June  1.  In  comparison  with  this, 
New  Lisbon's  average  last  frost  in  the  spring  is  May  23,  about 
fifteen  days  later  than  at  Cooperstown.  During  the  twenty  years 
there  has  been  a  frost  each  year  later  than  May  1.  In  fact,  four 
killing  frosts  have  occurred  later  than  June  1 .  The  average  grow- 
ing period  between  frosts  at  Cooperstown  is  one  hundred  forty-eight 

1  T.  J.  O'Gara,  investigator,  Rogue  River  Valley,  Oregon. 


SELECTION  OF  SITE  5 

days,  while  at  New  Lisbon  only  one  hundred  twenty-three  days 
are  available,  a  difference  of  twenty-five  days,  which  may  mean 
much  to  the  apple-grower. 

The  deduction  from  these  figures,  as  well  as  a  study  of  the  con- 
ditions at  these  two  places,  will  show  clearly  that  the  difference 
is  due  entirely  to  the  influence  of  the  body  of  water  upon  the 
adjacent  land  and  the  orchards. 

Winter  temperature.  Although  the  minimum  winter  tempera- 
ture which  a  given  variety  of  apples  can  withstand  cannot  be  posi- 
tively stated,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  depends  not  only  upon  the 
degree  of  cold  but  also  upon  many  other  factors,  such  as  (i)  the 
condition  of  the  tree  as  to  maturity,  (2)  the  question  of  moisture, 
and  (3)  the  daily  range  of  temperature,  that  is,  the  rapidity  and 
amount  of  the  rise  and  fall,  it  is  possible  to  give  a  general  idea 
of  the  lowest  temperature  average  trees  will  endure. 

In  Minnesota  and  other  states  of  the  northwest  this  is  one  of 
the  great  problems  of  apple-growing.  After  much  study  it  has 
been  found  that  for  this  territory  the  minimum  winter  temperature 
under  official  Weather  Bureau  records  is  about  40  degrees  F.  below 
zero.  These  results  seem  to  tally  with  those  from  other  sections. 
From  these  facts  deductions  may  be  obtained  that  would  uphold 
the  statement  that  it  is  not  practical  nor  profitable  to  grow  apples 
under  conditions  giving  a  lower  degree  temperature. 

Summer  temperature.  Excessively  high  or  low  temperature  dur- 
ing the  summers  seems  to  be  an  important  factor  in  determining 
the  site  or  location  for  certain  varieties  of  apples.  It  seems  from 
the  results  of  investigation  that  it  is  possible  to  determine  a  mean 
summer  temperature  at  which  an  apple  tree  will  produce  fruit  at 
its  best.  Deviation  from  this  mean  generally  results  in  greater  or 
less  inferiority  of  the  fruit.  This  depends  largely  upon  the  variety 
and  the  amount  of  deviation. 

A  low  summer  heat,  indicated  by  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
summer,  has  the  following  effects  upon  the  fruit : 

1.  Less  color.  The  greatest  amount  of  color  on  a  given  variety 
of  fruit  is  obtained  when  correct  conditions  for  the  variety  are 
given.  If,  then,  the  degree  of  mean  heat  for  a  certain  variety  is 
56  degrees  and  the  summer  temperature  falls  below  this,  there  is 
a  decrease  in  the  coloration  of  that  variety. 


6  THE  APPLE 

2.  Increased  acidity.  Analysis  shows  that  acidity  of  fruit  steadily 
decreases  throughout  the  stages  of  growth,  ripening,  and  decay.  If 
this  is  true,  then  fruit  which  does  not  have  time  for  its  proper 
maturity  will  be  acid. 

3.  Decreased  size  of  fruit.  Although  it  is  quite  difficult  to  de- 
termine whether  or  not  the  difference  in  lots  of  varying  size  is  due 
to  methods  of  culture,  condition  of  plant,  or  climate,  it  has  been 
clearly  determined  by  careful  records  that  almost  invariably  a 
decreased  size  is  obtained  with  a  low  summer  mean  temperature. 

4.  Increased  content  of  insoluble  solids.  This  is  determined  by 
analysis  and  with  some  varieties  has  been  very  marked.  The  Ben 
Davis  in  its  belt  shows  an  average  of  2.97  per  cent,  while  samples 
from  sections  north  of  its  natural  home  increased  to  3.6  per  cent. 

5.  Apple  scald  in  storage.  The  scalding  of  apples  in  storage 
sometimes  occurs  when  the  fruit  is  grown  under  poor  conditions, 
such  as  poor  soil  or  cultural  methods.  However,  immature  apples 
have  been  found  to  be  more  subject  to  scald  than  well-matured  fruit. 

6.  Increased  astringency .  Green  apples,  from  their  taste,  dem- 
onstrate quite  conclusively  that  they  have  increased  astringency 
over  apples  of  the  same  variety  grown  farther  south  or  more 
matured. 

In  contrast  to  the  low  temperature,  excessively  high  temperature 
over  the  summer  mean  would  show  the  following  effects  upon 
certain  varieties : 

1 .  Lack  of  color.  No  matter  how  favorable  the  conditions  may  be 
during  the  ripening  period,  apples  that  are  not  fully  developed  do 
not  take  on  a  natural,  satisfactory  color.  (Example  :  A  red  variety 
under  the  above  conditions  might  be  pinkish,  pale,  or  faded  red.) 

2.  Poor  flavor.  A  relatively  cool  atmosphere  is  to  be  desired 
for  the  highest  development  of  the  essential,  or  flavoring,  oils. 
High  temperatures  do  not  give  these  results. 

3.  Decreased  size.  The  Winesap,  Ben  Davis,  and  some  other 
varieties  which  have  been  grown  farther  south  than  their  normal 
belt  have  produced  evidences  of  smallness  in  their  fruit. 

4.  Uneven  ripening.  This  is  noticeable  when  a  winter  variety 
is  grown  in  the  South  out  of  its  normal  habitat. 

5 .  Poor  storage  qualities.  Most  varieties  under  excessive  heat 
continue  the  ripening  process  until  decay  sets  in.    This  may  be 


SELECTION  OF  SITE  7 

somewhat  overcome  by  watching  the  fruit  carefully,  picking  at  the 
correct  time,  and  placing  the  apples  in  cold  storage  immediately. 

6.  Mealiness  and  premature  dropping.  These  are  caused  by 
the  fruit  being  overripe. 

As  a  general  rule  the  deduction  from  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  pertinent  remarks  :  For 
winter  varieties  a  departure  of  2  degrees  or  more  in  either  direction 
from  their  normal  requirements  will  produce  something  quite  notice- 
able. This  is  less  true  of  fall  varieties,  and  even  less  for  summer 
sorts.  In  short,  the  earlier  the  variety  the  greater  the  temperature 
range  without  decided  deterioration  of  the  fruit. 

Exposure.  Just  what  is  meant  by  the  term  "  exposure "  as 
applied  to  an  apple  orchard  ?  According  to  Webster,  exposure 
means  "  the  position  in  regard  to  the  points  of  the  compass  or  to 
influences  of  climate  and  so  forth,"  "  accessibility  to  anything  that 
may  affect"  ;  for  example,  a  northern  exposure,  that  is,  open  to 
the  north  winds. 

A  farmer  would  define  exposure  as  "  the  slope  of  the  land  "  (as 
a  western  slope,  a  southern  slope,  etc.).  This  is  undoubtedly  correct. 
Most  authorities  claim  that  a  northern  hillside  or  gradual  slope  is 
best  because  it  is  the  coolest,  the  western  next,  the  eastern  next, 
and  the  southern  the  least  desirable  of  all,  because  it  forces  the 
trees  into  early  blooming.  The  majority  of  fruit  growers  in  the  East 
prefer  the  northern  slope  for  apples,  owing  to  the  fact  that,  being 
cooler,  it  retards  the  growth  of  the  trees  in  the  spring,  making  the 
blooms  less  liable  to  injury,  so  that  it  compensates  for  the  greater 
freedom  from  frost  with  which  the  southern  side  is  favored. 

It  is  not  good  policy  to  locate  an  orchard  in  a  pocket  made  by 
hills  or  on  a  level  valley  floor.  Always  select  a  gradual,  sloping 
hillside.    Even  a  low  hill  will  be  satisfactory. 

The  author  carried  on  a  survey  upon  a  large  farm  one  year 
during  the  fall  and  spring  to  ascertain  just  the  correct  location  for 
an  orchard.  This  survey  consisted  in  placing  ten  self-registering 
thermometers  at  different  points  on  the  farm  on  stakes,  trees,  etc. 
All  these  places  seemed  to  offer  some  advantages  for  the  location 
of  an  orchard.  By  carefully  watching  the  thermometers  morning 
and  night  and  keeping  a  record  the  best  of  these  locations  was  de- 
termined.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  practical  orchardists  that  this 


8  THE  APPLE 

simple  survey  may  mean  the  saving  of  hundreds  of  dollars  later  on, 
and  it  not  only  increases  the  money  value  but  gives  the  satisfaction 
of  knowing  that  the  best  site  has  been  selected,  considering  climate. 

Soil.  Only  recently  has  the  selection  of  soils  for  an  apple 
orchard  been  given  much  notice  in  comparison  with  the  attention 
which  has  been  given  to  the  selection  of  soils  for  other  crops. 
The  old  prescription,  "a  deep,  well-drained  soil  for  successful 
apple-growing,"  is  as  applicable  to-day  as  in  the  past,  but  it 
applies  to  other  crops  just  as  much  as  to  apples.  However,  it  has 
been  found,  when  other  conditions  are  equalized,  that  the  best 
results  are  obtained  when  a  certain  variety  is  favored  with  a  defi- 
nite soil  type.  This  observation  has  led  some  scientists  into  the 
more  detailed  study  of  the  relationship  between  certain  varieties 
and  different  soils,  so  that  to-day  soils  are  mentioned  as  Baldwin 
soils,  others  as  Rhode  Island  Greening  soils,  Northern  Spy  soils, 
Grimes  soils,  and  so  on.  A  later  chapter  will  be  given  over  to  a 
detailed  discussion  of  these  different  soil  types  as  applied  to  their 
adaptability  to  certain  varieties  of  apples. 

Water  supply  in  the  soil.  In  general,  medium  loams  with 
slightly  heavier,  fairly  friable  subsoils  are  the  best  soils  for  apples. 
If  the  soil  tends  toward  heavy  clay  it  is  likely  to  be  too  wet, 
compact,  and  therefore  too  cold.  On  the  other  hand,  light  sandy 
soils  are  too  loose  and  therefore  often  dry  out  very  quickly. 
This  dryness  of  the  soil  often  increases  the  desired  color  of  the 
fruit,  while  the  wet,  heavy  soil  has  a  tendency  to  decrease  the 
desired  color ;  but  the  heavier  soils  have  ranker  growth  of  wood 
and  larger  leaves,  while  the  sands  produce  much  poorer  leaf  and 
wood  growth. 

The  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil  seems  to  be  the  funda- 
mental factor  in  making  a  certain  soil  suitable  for  the  most  suc- 
cessful growth  of  a  given  variety  of  apple  within  the  fruit's  general 
climatic  region.  Why  this  is  so  may  not  be  perfectly  clear  to  the 
reader,  but  it  may  be  somewhat  clearer  when  it  is  understood  that 
the  only  kind  of  water  which  plant  growth  seems  to  be  able  to  use 
is  the  capillary  water  which  the  soil  holds,  and  that  the  capacity 
of  a  soil  to  hold  capillary  water  depends  on  several  factors. 

The  size  of  the  soil  grains,  or  the  soil  texture,  is  a  very  impor- 
tant factor.   Every  soil  particle  is  surrounded  by  a  film  of  moisture. 


SELECTION   OF  SITE  9 

Thus  the  finer  these  soil  particles  the  greater  the  number  of 
films,  resulting  in  a  larger  amount  of  moisture  in  a  given  soil. 
Drainage  does  not  remove  this  film  moisture.  It  is  only  re- 
moved through  the  growing  plant  by  transpiration  and  by  evapo- 
ration from  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  latter  may  be  controlled 
by  proper  tillage  or  soil-mulch  conservation. 

The  humus  content  of  a  given  soil  is  another  important  re- 
quirement in  regard  to  the  water  supply  in  the  soil.  The  supply 
of  humus  in  the  soil,  generally  included  in  the  surface  layer, 
greatly  lessens  the  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation,  and  further 
increases  considerably  the  moisture-holding  capacity  of  the  soil, 
both  as  to  rainfall  and  the  rise  of  capillary  water.  Hence  the 
greater  the  amount  of  moisture  in  a  soil,  the  lower  the  tempera- 
ture of  that  soil  during  the  summer. 

Closely  connected  with  the  texture  and  the  humus  content  of  a 
soil  in  regard  to  the  water  supply  is  the  degree  of  soil  tilth.  The 
more  complete  the  mulch  formed  by  cultivation,  the  greater  the 
conservation  of  soil  moisture ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  loss  by 
evaporation  is  materially  lessened  where  good  tillage  is  practiced. 

Surface,  drainage,  air,  and  water.  It  is  essential  that  some 
elevation  be  given  to  the  site  for  an  orchard,  in  order  that  good 
air  and  water  drainage  may  be  obtained.  Cold  air,  being  heavier 
than  warm  air,  has  a  tendency  to  flow  or  run  downhill,  while  the 
warmer  air  will  rise.  This  flow,  or  free  movement,  of  the  air  is 
obtained  if  an  elevation  is  selected  as  a  site  for  an  apple  orchard. 
Often  an  elevation  of  not  more  than  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
feet  will  be  sufficient  to  give  this  action,  particularly  if  there  is  a 
good  outlet,  such  as  a  water  channel,  below  ;  but  if  a  pocket  is 
formed  and  the  cold  air  is  retained,  as  in  valleys  and  such  places, 
the  location  is  not  desirable,  owing  to  the  fact  that  on  still,  clear, 
cool  nights  frost  is  likely  to  occur  and  great  injury  may  result. 

Besides  the  desirable  air  drainage,  water  drainage  will  be  given 
on  these  elevated  sites,  doing  away  with  the  injury  of  standing 
water  around  the  roots  of  the  trees.  Nevertheless,  washing  of  the 
soil  should  be  avoided  by  the  selecting  of  gradual  slopes,  the  planting 
of  cover  crops,  or  other  means. 


CHAPTER  II 
ADAPTATION  OF  VARIETIES  TO  SOILS1 

The  selection  of  the  soil  for  orchard  planting  has  received  rela- 
tively little  attention  in  the  past  as  compared  with  that  given  to 
selecting  soils  for  other  special  crops.  In  the  production  of  the 
latter,  such  as  tobacco,  onions,  garden  and  floral  crops,  competition 
has  forced  the  selection  of  favorable  soils  as  well  as  suitable  condi- 
tions. The  most  successful  growers  have  learned  through  experi- 
ence, moreover,  to  discriminate  carefully  in  choosing  their  soils. 

The  general  farmer  has  not  advanced  so  far  in  the  matter  of 
selecting  particular  soils  for  his  crops,  or,  conversely,  in  using  his 
soils  to  grow  only  those  crops  which  they  are  best  adapted  to 
produce.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  money  returns 
per  acre  are  much  less  than  the  returns  from  special  crops,  and 
hence  it  has  not  been  so  essential  to  select  soils  with  as  much 
care  as  for  special  crops.  Even  so,  in  the  eastern  United  States 
there  are  many  soil  areas  from  which  general  farming  has  been 
driven  because  the  soils  were  not  adapted  to  such  use.  And  this 
statement  is  not  meant  to  include  rough  lands  which  have  been 
unable  to  compete  on  account  of  the  relatively  heavy  expense  of 
working  them. 

There  is  no  longer  any  question  as  to  whether  orcharding  is  a 
specialized  business.  The  steadily  increasing  demand  for  orchard 
products  of  select  appearance  has  compelled  growers,  if  they  would 
succeed,  to  spray  thoroughly,  to  maintain  a  Well-balanced  wood 
growth,  and  to  market  the  fruit  in  an  attractive  manner. 

As  a  result  of  the  vast  amount  of  orchard  experience  already 
acquired,  it  is  apparent  that  some  soils  have  given  better  returns 
than  others.  Hence  we  get  from  many  sources  the  prescription 
of  "a  deep,  well-drained  soil  for  successful  apple-growing."  No 
one  will  question  the  excellence  of  this  general  rule  (which  is,  in 
fact,  just  as  applicable  to  other  crops  as  to  apples),  but  there  is  a 

1  After  H.  J.  Wilder,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C. 
10 


ADAPTATION  OF  VARIETIES  TO   SOILS  II 

tremendous  range  of  soils  in  any  state,  and  it  is  found,  when 
other  conditions  are  equalized,  that  certain  varieties  of  apples  give 
the  best  results  on  certain  kinds  of  soil. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  one  orchardist  who  thinks  that  the 
point  of  chief  consideration  should  be  variety  ;  another,  climate  ;  an- 
other, tillage  or  sod  mulching;  another,  spraying;  another,  pruning; 
another,  fertilizers  ;  and  so  on.  Several  of  these  factors  usually 
receive  careful  thought  from  orchardists,  but  relatively  few  men  will 
claim  not  to  have  neglected  some  of  them.  The  point  needing 
emphasis  is  that  while  all  these  elements  are  essential,  no  one  is  of 
much  avail  except  in  conjunction  with  all  the  others.  Thus,  all  the 
other  conditions  will  avail  little  if  the  soil  is  not  well  selected ;  yet 
the  character  of  the  soil  is  of  little  importance  if  the  trees  do  not 
receive  proper  care  after  planting.  The  orchardist  should  choose 
soil  that  is  generally  suitable  for  orcharding,  and  on  such  given  soil 
he  should  plant  only  those  varieties  to  which  it  is  best  adapted. 

The  necessity  for  soil-variety  selection  is  most  forcibly  illustrated 
by  the  experiences  of  fruit  growers  who  have  found  orcharding 
profitable.  There  are  very  few,  even  of  the  most  prominent  growers, 
who  have  not  found,  at  marked  cost  and  with  years  of  waiting,  that 
certain  varieties  of  fruit  would  not  succeed  under  the  conditions 
which  they  were  able  to  supply.  Yet  the  reason  for  this  has  rarely 
been  investigated  seriously,  and  failure,  when  it  comes,  is  commonly 
ascribed  to  the  climate  or  to  some  inherent  fault  of  the  variety. 
Then  the  grower  often  does  untold  harm  by  the  announcement  that 
this  or  that  variety  is  not  adapted  to  the  surrounding  locality.  He 
is  honest  in  his  opinion,  and  his  experience,  from  the  very  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  will  be  largely  accepted.  Yet  other  soils  in  the 
locality,  or  even  soil  on  another  part  of  that  particular  farm,  may  be 
favorable  to  this  rejected  variety,  which  may  possess  good  commer- 
cial possibilities.  This  is  an  illustration  of  the  fact  that  all  other 
circumstances  combined,  though  favorable,  are  insufficient  for  the 
production  of  any  variety  if  the  proper  soil  is  not  selected.  Yet 
other  varieties  may  have  been  growing  eminently  well  upon  the 
soil  tested. 

In  view  of  such  facts  it  is  not  strange  that  there  is  a  rapidly 
growing  commercial  demand  for  such  knowledge  of  the  soil  as  will 
enable  the  grower  to  know  how  to  avoid  planting  those  varieties  not 


12  THE  APPLE 

adapted  to  available  conditions,  and  to  select  those  varieties  that 
will  do  well.  The  cause  of  this  demand  is  illustrated  not  only  by 
the  unprofitableness  of  many  orchards  as  a  whole,  but  even  more 
forcibly  by  the  unprofitableness  of  varieties  now  growing  on  cer- 
tain soils,  or  under  certain  soil  conditions,  in  orchards  of  the  best 
fruit  growers. 

A  given  variety,  for  the  best  success  within  its  general  climatic 
region,  should  be  planted  on  certain  kinds  or  under  certain  condi- 
tions of  soil.  Outside  this  region  certain  compensating  factors  may 
make  the  production  of  such  variety  feasible.  The  Baldwin,  for  in- 
stance, which  originated  in  Massachusetts  and  may  be  grown  with 
success  much  more  universally  north  of  a  line  drawn  from  New 
York  City  west  to,  say,  Sunbury,  Bellefonte,  and  New  Castle  near 
the  Ohio  line  than  anywhere  else,  is  still  a  valuable  sort  for  elevated 
areas  from  central  Pennsylvania  to  northern  Virginia.  In  this  case 
a  greater  elevation  compensates  for  the  more  southerly  location,  and 
as  a  result  this  variety,  when  grown  upon  suitable  soils,  is  a  com- 
mercial sort  far  south  into  Virginia.  The  climatic  factor  is  always  in 
evidence,  however,  for  with  increasing  distance  southward  a  higher 
altitude  is  necessary.  At  lower  elevations  the  Baldwin  becomes  a 
fall  apple,  and  as  such  it  is  not  so  desirable  as  other  varieties.  A 
slight  exception  to  this  statement,  and  yet  one  that  strongly  illus- 
trates the  effect  of  soil  influence,  lies  in  the  fact  that  if,  at  the  very 
point  where  the  Baldwin  tends  to  become  a  fall  apple,  it  is  planted 
on  a  soil  somewhat  heavier  than  the  ideal,  such  departure  from  the 
normal  soil  offsets  in  some  degree  the  unfavorable  change  in  climatic 
influence.  This  is  due  probably  to  the  lower  specific  heat  of  the 
more  clayey  soil,  and  is  of  importance  only  where  the  climatic  de- 
parture is  not  very  marked,  a  wide  difference  not  being  susceptible 
to  amelioration  by  soil  selection.  As  grown  in  the  district  above 
outlined,  the  Baldwin  is  an  excellent  No.  2  winter  sort. 

With  this  understanding  of  the  problem  the  soil  requirements 
of  several  varieties  of  apples  will  be  discussed. 

Baldwin  soils.  If  soils  are  thought  of  as  grading  from  heavy  to 
light,  according  to  the  range  from  clay  to  sand,  then  soils  grading 
from  medium  to  semi-light  fulfill  best  the  requirements  of  the 
Baldwin.  Following  definitely  the  classification  standards  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Soils  with  reference  to  the  proportions  of 


ADAPTATION   OF  VARIETIES   TO   SOILS  13 

clay,  silt,  and  sands,  this  grouping  would  include  the  medium- 
to-light  loams,  the  heavy  sandy  loams,  and  also  the  medium  sandy 
loams  provided  they  were  underlain  by  soil  material  not  lighter 
than  a  medium  loam  nor  heavier  than  a  light  or  medium  clay 
loam  of  friable  structure. 

From  this  broad  generalization  it  will  be  seen  that  the  surface 
soil  should  contain  an  appreciable  amount  of  sand.  The  sands, 
moreover,  should  not  be  all  of  one  grade  ;  that  is,  a  high  percentage 


Fig.  2.    A  Baldwin  that  has  found  congenial  soil 

When  fifteen  years  old  this  tree  produced  nine  barrels  of  No.  i,  the  small  pile  (at  the  left) 

of  No.  2,  and  the  very  small  pile  (at  the  right)  of  culls.    (From  the  farm  of  Edward  Van 

Alstyne,  Kinderhook,  New  York) 


of  coarse  sand  would  give  a  poor  soil,  whereas  a  moderate  admixture 
of  it  with  the  finer  grades  of  sand,  together  with  sufficient  clay  and 
silt,  would  work  no  harm.  In  general  the  sand  content  should  be 
of  finer  grades,  but  soils  also  occur,  though  comparatively  rare, 
which  would  be  too  heavy  for  this  variety  if  it  were  not  for  a 
marked  content  of  the  coarse  sands,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  make 
the  mass  of  soil  much  more  friable  and  open  than  would  be  expected 
with  the  presence  of  so  much  clay.  Such  soil  dries  quickly  after  a 
rain  and  is  not  to  be  classed  as  a  moist  soil.  It  will  never  clod  if 
worked  under  conditions  at  all  reasonable.    The  subsoil,  on  the 


14  THE  APPLE 

other  hand,  must  never  be  heavy  enough  to  impede  ready  drainage 
of  excess  moisture,  yet  must  be  sufficiently  clayey  to  retain  a  good 
moisture  supply  ;  that  is,  it  must  be  plastic,  not  stiff. 

The  ideal  to  be  sought  is  a  heavy  fine  sandy  loam,  or  light  mellow 
loam,  underlain  by  plastic  light  clay  loam  or  heavy  silty  loam.  It  is 
fully  realized  that  many  will  not  possess  this  ideal  soil,  but  the  soil 
that  most  closely  resembles  it  should  be  chosen.  If  corn  is  grown  on 
such  soil,  the  lower  leaves  will  cure  down  before  cutting  time,  giving 
evidence  of  moderately  early  maturity.  This  is  one  of  the  safe 
criteria  by  which  to  be  guided  in  choosing  soil  for  Baldwins. 

In  the  above  description,  mention  was  not  made  of  the  color  of 
the  soil.  The  desirability  of  a  surface  soil  of  dark  brown  (the  color 
being  due  to  the  presence  of  decaying  organic  matter)  is  unquestion- 
able and  generally  recognized,  and  if  the  soil  is  not  of  that  color, 
the  successful  orchardist  will  make  it  such  by  the  incorporation  of 
organic  matter  through  the  growth  of  leguminous  crops  or  by  some 
other  means.  It  is  often  cheaper  to  buy  soil  with  a  good  organic 
content,  or  humus  supply,  than  it  is  to  be  compelled  to  put  it  there 
after  purchase  before  good  crops  can  be  secured.  Hence  this  is 
purely  an  economic  feature.  The  warning  should  be  stated,  how- 
ever, that  a  soil  should  not  be  purchased  or  planted  to  apples  of 
any  variety  because  it  is  dark-colored  and  rich  in  humus.  The  soil 
should  be  selected  because  of  its  textural  and  structural  adaptation, 
regardless  of  the  organic  content.  Then,  if  such  soils  happen  to  be 
well  supplied  with  vegetable  matter,  so  much  the  better ;  if  not,  it 
may  be  supplied. 

Ben  Davis  and  Gano.  These  varieties  show  less  effect  from 
variation  in  the  soils  upon  which  they  are  grown  than  any  others 
observed.  Their  well-known  quality  is  probably  somewhat  indica- 
tive of  why  this  is  so,  yet  there  are  differences  to  be  noted  in  the 
character  of  the  fruit  as  affected  by  soil  and  climate.  The  latter 
feature  is  believed  to  be  of  great  importance,  for  while  there  is 
no  gainsaying  the  fact  that  the  Ben  Davis  will  grow  anywhere  and 
produce  fruit  of  some  description,  it  requires  a  good  deal  of  warm 
weather  for  its  best  development. 

The  mere  fact  that  the  Ben  Davis  may  well  be  called  the  "  apple 
of  neglect,"  because  it  will  probably  stand  more  neglect  than  any 
other  commercial  variety  and  still  bear  fruit,  accounts  for  the 


ADAPTATION  OF  VARIETIES  TO   SOILS  15 

commercial  growers'  dictum  that  it  is  "a  good  barrel  filler  and  a 
good  shipper  ' '  ;  while  they  may  follow  this  saying  with  the  words, 
"and  that  is  all."  No  other  varieties  are  so  cosmopolitan  with 
regard  to  climate,  and  from  New  York  to  Alabama  these  apples 
have  numerous  advocates. 

Soils  as  heavy  and  moist  as  described  for  the  green  Rhode  Island 
Greening  are  not  desirable  for  either  the  Ben  Davis  or  Gano.  The 
tree  is  naturally  of  strong  growth,  hence  this  characteristic  should 
not  be  intensified  by  planting  on  an  excessively  rich  soil,  both  on 
account  of  the  growth  of  tree  and  the  poor  quality  and  color  of  the 
fruit.  At  the  same  time,  the  opposite  extreme  is  not  desirable,  for 
if  the  soil  be  too  sandy  the  tree  grows  stragglingly. 

Both  of  these  varieties  as  planted  are  bound  to  prove  profitable, 
but  they  are  not  altogether  satisfactory.  Soils  adapted  to  the  Baldwin, 
York  Imperial,  or  Winesap  will  grow  good  trees  and  fruit  of  both 
Ben  Davis  and  Gano.  Hence,  there  are  extensive  soil  areas,  par- 
ticularly in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  the  mountainous  areas  of 
Virginia  and  West  Virginia,  that  are  well  adapted  to  these  vari- 
eties, and  they  are  also  profitable  varieties  in  western  New  York 
and  in  the  Hudson  valley. 

From  careful  observation  it  is  believed  that  the  Ozark  Ben  Davis 
is  a  little  larger  than  the  Appalachian-grown  fruit,  and  that  under 
the  same  conditions  the  Ozark  fruit  is  sufficiently  superior  to  the 
latter  to  bring  a  slightly  higher  price  in  market.  As  a  commercial 
proposition,  however,  the  greater  number  of  crops  secured  in  the 
Appalachian  region  in  any  considerable  period,  such  as  a  decade, 
enables  that  section  to  compete  successfully  in  the  production  of 
these  varieties.  An  important  point  to  be  considered,  nevertheless, 
by  the  Eastern  growers  is  the  outlook  for  future  markets. 

Fall  Pippin.  The  Fall  Pippin  soils  are  somewhat  wider  in 
range  than  those  of  the  two  preceding  varieties.  In  fact,  this 
variety  will  succeed  on  the  soils  described  for  the  Tompkins  King 
and  the  Northern  Spy.  It  is  preferable,  however,  that  the  surface 
soil  be  a  fine  loam  rather  than  the  open-textured  loam  described 
for  the  Tompkins  King. 

Grimes.  The  Grimes  is  so  similar  to  the  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing in  soil  adaptation  that  a  separate  description  of  the  soils  best  for 
this  variety  will  not  be  given.    The  Grimes  has  been  so  profitable 


i6 


THE  APPLE 


in  some  districts,  under  certain  conditions  of  soil  and  climate, 
however,  that  its  desirability  for  general  planting  has  been  widely 
heralded,  and  as  a  result  it  is  now  being  planted  with  too  little 
discrimination,  with  reference  to  both  soil  and  climate. 

The  best  general  guide  is  to  plant  the  Grimes  where  the  Rhode 
Island  Greening  tends  to  become  a  fall  apple  ;  that  is,  the  Rhode 
Island  Greening  soil,  located  far  enough  south  for  that  variety  to 
be  undesirable  for  extensive  planting,  is  well  adapted  to  and  may 


Fig.  3.    Apples  from  one  tree  nineteen  years  old 

No.  1  in  the  barrels ;  No.  2  at  the  right ;  small  pile,  culls.    An  indication  that  this  tree  is 
growing  in  the  correct  soil  type.    {Tribune  Farmer) 

well  be  utilized  for  the  Grimes.  It  is  recognized  that  some  growers 
as  far  north  as  New  York  may  dissent  from  this  view.  The  tend- 
ency for  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  fruit  to  be  undersized 
when  grown  there  is  one  of  the  prime  reasons  why  it  cannot  com- 
pete commercially  with  that  grown  under  more  favorable  conditions. 
Besides,  it  is  often  not  up  to  the  standard  in  color. 

The  tendency  of  the  tree  to  make  unsatisfactory  growth  may  be 
overcome  in  some  measure  if  planted  in  soil  to  which  it  is  adapted. 
It  should  never  be  planted  on  a  light  or  thin  soil,  nor  yet  on  a  stiff 
soil.  The  tree  maintains  its  best  growth  on  a  well-drained,  fertile, 
moist  soil,  and  under  such  conditions  is  a  very  desirable  variety  in 


ADAPTATION   OF   VARIETIES   TO   SOILS  17 

its  region.  Good  air  drainage  is  essential.  Lack  of  it  makes  neces- 
sary the  elimination  of  many  soil  areas  that  would  otherwise  be 
desirable.  Its  excellent  dessert  quality  makes  the  Grimes  a  favorite 
sort  both  for  family  and  for  commercial  use.  For  a  special  box 
trade,  it  is  especially  valuable. 

Hubbardston.  Compared  with  the  Baldwin  soil  requirements, 
the  heaviest  soils  desirable  for  the  Hubbardston  in  the  northern 
districts  lap  over  for  a  little  upon  the  lightest  soils  desirable  for 
the  Baldwin,  while  at  the  other  extreme  the  Hubbardston  will 
utilize  the  most  sandy  soil  of  any  of  the  varieties  of  that  region. 
This  does  not  mean  that  it  will  succeed  on  poor  light  sands,  for 
on  such  soils  the  apple  will  not  attain  sufficient  size  to  be  of 
value,  nor  is  the  tree  vigorous  enough,  but  the  soil  should  always 
be  very  mellow. 

A  rich  fine  sandy  loam  to  a  depth  of  at  least  a  foot  is  preferable, 
and  the  subsoil  may  well  be  of  the  same  texture.  On  such  soils 
this  variety  gives  remarkable  results  in  New  England,  where  it 
originated.  A  subsoil  containing  enough  clay  to  make  the  fine 
sandy  material  somewhat  coherent  or  sticky  is  excellent,  but  there 
should  never  be  enough  clay  present  to  render  the  subsoil  heavy. 
If  the  soil  is  too  heavy  or  too  clayey  the  fruit  is  liable,  in  the 
northern  sections  especially,  to  have  greasy  skins,  the  color  is  defi- 
cient, and  the  flavor  insufficiently  developed  ;  but  in  the  southern 
sections  fairly  heavy  soils,  such  as  loams,  may  well  be  used  if 
mellow  and  friable.  In  common  phraseology  the  soil  should  be 
such  as  to  respond  quickly  to  fertilizers,  not  the  earliest  soil  but 
one  moderately  early.  The  Hubbardston  requires  good  air  drainage 
and  local  elevation  for  the  best  results. 

King.  The  Tompkins  King  is  fully  as  exacting  as  the  Northern 
Spy  in  soil  adaptation.  The  tree,  with  its  straggling  tendency  of 
growth,  does  not  develop  satisfactorily  on  sandy  soils,  but  succeeds 
best  on  a  moist  yet  well-drained  soil ;  that  is,  the  light  Rhode 
Island  Greening  soils  —  a  soil  capable  of  maintaining  such  supply 
of  moisture  that  the  tree  receives  no  check  at  the  approach  of 
drought.  But  the  fruit  grown  on  soils  so  heavy  lacks  clearness  of 
skin,  and  the  appearance  of  the  apple  is  marred  by  the  greenish 
look,  extending  far  up  the  sides  from  the  blossom  end,  and  the  lack 
of  well-developed  color,  which  makes  this  fruit  at  its  best  very 


1 8  THE  APPLE 

attractive.  Hence  the  problem  is  to  balance  these  two  opposite 
tendencies  as  well  as  possible,  and  soil  of  the  following  description 
seems  best  to  do  this  :  light  mellow  loam,  the  sand  content  thereof 
being  medium  rather  than  fine,  thus  constituting  an  open-textured 
loam  instead  of  a  fine  loam.  The  subsoil  should  be  either  of  the 
same  texture  or  only  slightly  heavier,  in  no  case  being  heavier  than 
a  very  light  plastic  clay  loam.  The  soils  must  be  brought  to  a  pro- 
ductive condition.  Subsoils  inclining  toward  stiffness  in  structure 
should  be  carefully  avoided. 

The  Tompkins  King  is  commercial  only  in  the  northern  sec- 
tions, and  even  there  it  is  seldom  as  profitable  per  acre  as  other 
varieties,  unless  it  receives  special  care.  It  is  a  choice  variety  for 
the  specialist  who  caters  to  select  city  trade. 

Mammoth  Black  Twig  (Arkansas).  This  variety  bears  the 
reputation  of  being  a  shy  bearer,  and  while  such  repute  may  be 
deserved  in  a  measure  as  a  varietal  characteristic,  yet  the  variance 
of  results  due  to  the  differences  of  soil  shows  the  importance  of 
the  latter  factor  in  growing  the  Arkansas.  Originating  near  the 
southern  end  of  the  Ozarks  in  northwest  Arkansas,  its  growth  on 
most  of  the  soils  there,  although  it  is  still  a  comparatively  young 
variety,  has  been  luxuriant.  The  indications  are  that  the  stronger 
the  growth  of  this  variety  the  smaller  the  yield  of  fruit,  and  it 
is  certainly  not  desirable  on  moist  or  rich  soils.  Hence,  in  soil 
adaptation  it  is  the  opposite  of  the  Yellow  Newtown,  Rhode  Island 
Greening,  and  Grimes. 

The  heavy  loams  and  the  clays  not  in  a  very  rich  condition  are 
often  well  adapted  to  the  Arkansas.  The  Porters  clay,  for  instance, 
which  has  been  "farmed  out"  produces  tree  growth  as  vigorous 
as  this  variety  seems  able  to  stand  and  still  bear  satisfactorily. 
Shale  hills  are  well  adapted  to  the  Arkansas,  for,  generally  unpro- 
ductive, they  do  not  effect  excessive  growth,  while  if  deficient  in 
this  respect,  slight  fertilization  will  remedy  the  condition  and  bring 
the  trees  into  bearing.  On  rich  soils,  however,  it  is  very  difficult 
so  to  check  the  growth  as  to  induce  prolificacy.  The  limestone- 
valley  soils  are  an  illustration  of  this,  and  on  some  of  these  soils 
in  Virginia,  leaf  blight  is  very  serious  with  this  variety.  It  may  be 
added  that  this  soil  adaptation  holds  for  the  Ozark  plateau,  as  well 
as  the  Appalachian  region.     Hence  the  soil  conditions  for  this 


ADAPTATION  OF  VARIETIES  TO   SOILS  19 

variety  must  be  such  as  to  be  held  in  control,  making  sure  that 
the  wood  growth  is  not  too  rapid.  In  North  Alabama  the  DeKalb 
fine  sandy  loam  is  the  best  soil  for  the  Arkansas.  From  its  adapta- 
tion it  will  be  seen  that  very  cheap  lands  may  be  used  for  growing 
this  variety,  and  if  one  has  such  soils  and  wishes  to  turn  them  to 
apple  orcharding,  moderate  returns  may  be  obtained  from  growing 
the  Arkansas.  From  a  commercial  viewpoint,  however,  there  are 
few  growers  who  do  not  possess  enough  better  orcharding  land 
to  make  it  unnecessary  to  grow  this  apple  ;  and  even  on  the  thin 
soils  it  is  probable  that  other  varieties,  such  as  the  Ben  Davis, 
would  be  far  more  profitable. 

Newtown  Pippin.  The  Yellow  Newtown  has  always  been  regarded 
as  exacting  in  soil  requirements,  as  well  as  climatic  environment. 
Great  stress  has  been  laid  upon  this  point  in  Virginia,  where  it 
has  received  the  local  name  of  Albemarle  Pippin.  An  ideal  soil 
for  this  variety  in  Virginia  consists  of  dark-brown,  heavy  mellow 
loam  to  a  depth  of  twelve  inches,  which  grows  gradually  heavier  to 
twenty-four  inches,  where  it  becomes  a  clay  loam.  This  clay  loam, 
however,  is  not  stiff.  Heavier  soils  are  also  well  adapted  to  this 
variety  if  there  is  sufficient  decayed  vegetable  matter  present  to 
render  them  friable.  This  is  very  noticeable  with  the  Porters  clay. 
Such  soils,  rich  in  plant  food  and  retentive  of  moisture,  furnish 
ideal  conditions  for  this  variety,  which  requires  a  luxuriant  growth 
of  tree  to  produce  the  crisp  grain  and  delicate  flavor  of  fruit,  as 
well  as  a  profitable  yield.  So  well  did  the  Yellow  Newtown  thrive 
in  protected  coves  of  the  Porters  series  of  soils  in  Virginia,  where 
the  leaves  and  vegetable  debris  had  collected  for  so  long  that  the 
surface  material  was  black  to  a  general  depth  of  several  inches 
and  to  a  depth  of  several  feet  in  particular  cases,  that  it  was  only 
natural  in  the  course  of  time  for  the  idea  to  prevail  that  a  great 
accumulation  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  was  a  preliminary 
essential  for  success  with  this  variety. 

Again,  the  enormous  amounts  of  accumulated  vegetable  matter 
changed  heavy  clay  loams,  and  even  clays,  into  deep,  friable  soils, 
thus  furnishing  the  moist,  productive  conditions  so  necessary  for 
the  Yellow  Newtown.  Hence  the  belief  that  the  Yellow  Newtown 
should  be  planted  only  on  a  black  soil  became  firmly  grounded. 
Yet  many  orchard  soils  chosen  with  this  characteristic  in  mind 


20  THE  APPLE 

soon  lost  their  dark  color  as  a  result  of  intercropping,  and  in  most 
of  the  orchards  planted  on  very  dark  soil  the  color  is  now  at  most 
only  a  dark  brown.  On  the  other  hand,  areas  of  the  Porters  loam 
and  Porters  clay  that  had  not  been  blessed  with  the  accumulation 
of  extraordinary  stores  of  decayed  vegetable  matter,  but  otherwise 
were  the  same,  have  produced  results  just  as  good  with  this  variety. 
And  the  secret  of  this  success  has  been  simply  to  provide  an 
increase  of  humus  in  the  soil  by  the  growth  of  leguminous  and 
other  crops,  in  conjunction  with  stable  manure  where  available, 
instead  of  steadily  decreasing  such  supply  by  wasteful  practices 
in  cropping. 

In  fact,  it  is  now  known  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  having  an 
excess  of  organic  matter,  even  for  the  Pippin,  and  that  there  is 
a  happy  mean  which  produces  fruit  firmer  in  texture  and  better 
in  quality  than  that  grown  on  the  blackest  soils. 

In  choosing  soil  areas  for  the  Yellow  Newtown  in  the  type 
Porters  clay,  localities  with  stiff,  heavy  clay  subsoils  should  be 
avoided,  as  they  tend  to  produce  greasy  skins,  making  the  fruit 
defective  in  appearance. 

The  increase  of  insects  and  fungi  injurious  to  fruits  has  brought 
about  the  necessity  for  a  change  in  the  methods  of  growing  the 
Yellow  Newtown.  Orchards  located  in  coves  so  inaccessible  or 
steep  as  to  render  power  spraying  impracticable  have  been  profit- 
able, but  the  necessity  now  for  planting  orchards  not  only  where 
spraying  may  be  readily  done  but  also  where  the  various  processes 
of  tilling,  harvesting,  and  hauling  may  be  economically  accom- 
plished makes  the  profitable  production  of  this  apple  depend  upon 
its  being  grown  on  suitable  soils  in  an  accessible  location,  as  well 
as  with  necessary  climatic  attributes.  Such  areas  occur  in  the  types 
mentioned  and,  with  the  methods  of  soil  management  briefly  out- 
lined, indicate  the  excellent  possibilities  for  the  production  and 
extension  of  this  important  commercial  variety.  Hence,  soils  how- 
ever suitable  should  not  be  planted  if  too  steep  for  economic 
production.  This  is  a  crucial  feature  in  the  Virginia  region,  and 
fortunately  the  best  growers  are  coming  to  realize  it. 

In  the  Hudson  valley  region  the  soils  described  as  adapted 
to  the  Rhode  Island  Greening  are  also  suited  to  the  growth  of 
the  Yellow  Newtown.    Some  of  these  soils  will  grow  magnificent 


ADAPTATION  OF  VARIETIES  TO  SOILS  21 

Pippins  in  their  present  condition,  while  others  should  be  enliv- 
ened by  increasing  their  organic  content  either  with  stable  manure, 
with  leguminous  and  other  green  crops,  or  with  both. 

In  the  southern  tier  of  counties  midway  across  the  state  of 
Pennsylvania,  in  western  Maryland,  in  Virginia  and  the  extreme 
northeast  part  of  West  Virginia,  areas  of  loams  and  clay  loams 
well  elevated  locally  will  produce  the  Yellow  Newtown  successfully 


Fig.  4.    Northern  Spy — an  ideal  tree 
Surely  this  orchard  shows  the  results  of  proper  variety  on  soil  type 


if  properly  handled.  Such  areas  occur  in  the  Hagerstown,  Edge- 
mont,  and  Mont  Alto  series  of  soils  principally,  but  are  sometimes 
found  in  other  series.  The  tendency  of  this  variety,  however,  not 
to  bear  a  profitable  crop  until  fifteen  or  twenty  years  old,  and  even 
then  not  to  be  a  reliable  biennial  bearer,  will  prevent  its  planting 
to  any  large  extent  in  some  states. 

Northern  Spy.  This  variety  is  one  of  the  most  exacting  in  soil 
requirements.  To  obtain  good  quality  of  fruit  —  that  is,  fine  texture, 
juiciness,  and  high  flavor  —  the  soil  must  be  moderately  heavy,  and 
for  the  first  two  qualities  alone  the  Rhode  Island  Greening  soil 


22  THE  APPLE 

would  be  admirable.  The  fact  that  the  Northern  Spy  is  a  red 
apple,  however,  makes  it  imperative  that  the  color  be  well  devel- 
oped and  the  skin  free  from  the  greasy  tendency.  This  necessi- 
tates a  fine  adjustment  of  soil  conditions,  for  the  heaviest  of  the 
soils  adapted  to  the  Rhode  Island  Greening  produce  Northern 
Spies  with  greasy  skins  and  usually  of  inferior  color.  The  habit  of 
tree  growth  of  this  variety,  moreover,  is  such  as  to  require  careful 
attention.  Its  tendency  to  grow  upright  seems  to  be  accentuated 
by  too  clayey  soils,  if  well  enriched,  and  such  soils  tend  to  pro- 
mote growth  faster  than  the  tree  is  able  to  mature  well.  On  the 
other  hand,  sandy  soils,  while  producing  good  color  and  clear 
skins,  fail  to  bring  fruit  satisfactory  in  quality  with  respect  to  tex- 
ture and  flavor.  The  keeping  quality,  too,  is  inferior  to  that  of 
the  Spy  grown  on  heavier  soils  in  the  same  district.  Hence  the 
soil  requirements  of  this  variety  are  decidedly  exacting,  and  are 
best  supplied  apparently  by  a  medium  loam  underlain  by  a  heavy 
loam  or  light  clay  loam.  It  should  not  be  planted  on  a  soil  lighter 
than  a  very  heavy  fine  sandy  loam,  underlain  by  a  light  clay  loam 
or  possibly  a  heavy  loam.  On  light  soils  the  Northern  Spy  very 
often  yields  less  per  acre  than  the  Baldwin.  Good  air  drainage 
is  also  very  essential  with  this  variety. 

The  Northern  Spy  should  be  grown  commercially  only  in  the 
Baldwin  district,  and  does  not  succeed  so  far  south  as  that  variety, 
even  at  high  elevations.  Central  Pennsylvania  seems  to  be  its 
southern  commercial  limit.  For  family  use  or  for  local  markets, 
it  may  be  grown  on  elevated  positions  somewhat  farther  south, 
but  it  fails  to  keep  until  its  normal  season. 

Rhode  Island  Greening.  Soils  adapted  to  the  production  of  a 
green  Rhode  Island  Greening,  as  distinguished  from  the  Rhode 
Island  Greening  carrying  a  high  blush,  are  distinct  from  the 
Baldwin  standard.  New  York  City  has  been  the  largest  market 
for  this  variety.  She  prefers  a  green  Greening,  and  for  it  the 
great  majority  of  her  apple  dealers  will  pay  more  than  for  a 
blush  Greening,  or  more  than  other  cities  will  pay  for  the 
latter.  Consequently  it  has  been  the  aim  to  ascertain  the  soil  con- 
ditions that  best  contribute  to  this  standard.  For  it  a  surface  soil 
of  heavy  silty  loam  or  light  silty  loam,  underlain  by  silty  clay 
loam,  excels.   Such  soil  will  retain  sufficient  moisture  to  be  classed 


ADAPTATION  OF  VARIETIES  TO   SOILS  23 

as  a  moist  soil,  yet  it  is  not  so  heavy  as  ever  to  be  ill  drained  if 
surface  drainage  is  adequate.  The  soil  should  be  moderately  rich 
in  organic  matter,  decidedly  more  so  than  for  the  Baldwin.  In 
contrast  to  the  Baldwin  soil  in  the  growth  of  corn,  it  should  keep 
the  lower  leaves  of  the  plant  green  until  harvesting  time  or  at 
least  until  late  in  the  season.  Such  soil  conditions  maintain  a 
long  seasonal  growth  under  uniform  conditions  of  moisture,  and 
thus  produce  the  firm  yet  crisp  texture,  the  remarkable  juiciness, 
and  the  high  flavor  for  which  this  variety  is  noted  when  at  its 
best.  If  a  high  blush  is  desired,  however,  to  supply  other  market 
conditions  or  for  home  use,  a  soil  somewhat  warmer  than  that 
described  should  be  selected  —  a  deep  light  mellow  loam  or  a 
productive  fine  sandy  loam  being  favorable. 

The  Rhode  Island  Greening  is  also  more  restricted  in  area  than 
the  Baldwin,  not  adapting  itself  to  the  climatic  conditions  as  far 
south  as  the  Baldwin,  even  though  suitable  soils  occur  there.  In 
fact,  its  southern  boundary  may  be  estimated  roughly  as  \  degree 
north  of  the  forty-first  parallel.  South  of  that  it  becomes  a  fall  apple 
and  keeps  very  poorly. 

Rome  Beauty.  The  Rome  Beauty  bears  the  same  relation  to 
the  Grimes  in  soil  requirements  as  the  Baldwin  does  to  the 
Rhode  Island  Greening  in  their  respective  regions.  There  is, 
however,  something  of  an  overlapping  of  regions  ;  that  is,  the 
Baldwin  extends  farther  south  in  adaptation  than  the  Rhode 
Island  Greening,  and  the  Rome  Beauty  extends  as  far  north  as 
the  Grimes.  But  this  intra-regional  overlapping  of  the  Rome 
Beauty  and  the  Baldwin  is  largely  a  matter  of  dovetailing  due  to 
variations  in  elevation.  Thus  in  southern  Pennsylvania,  as  the 
Baldwin  in  its  southerly  extension  seeks  its  soil  at  higher  eleva- 
tions to  offset  the  climatic  changes,  so  does  the  Rome  Beauty  in 
its  northern  extension  seek  the  same  soil  at  a  lower  elevation  for 
the  same  reason. 

It  is  grown  with  marked  success  in  West  Virginia,  where  it  is  a 
leading  commercial  sort.  It  has  given  excellent  results  there  on 
fine  sandy  loams  and  mellow  loams  of  the  Westmoreland,  Upshur, 
and  DeKalb  series.  In  western  Kentucky,  too,  the  Rome  Beauty  is 
of  commercial  importance,  and  it  promises  well  for  growing  farther 
south  at  considerable  elevation.    In  a  few  instances  it  has  grown 


24  THE  APPLE 

successfully  in  north  Alabama  on  the  loam  and  fine  sandy  loam  of 
the  Cecil  series.  The  heavy,  fine  sandy  loam  and  the  loam  of  the 
DeKalb  series  would  also  be  moderately  good  for  this  variety, 
though  very  often  these  soils  would  need  to  be  made  more  pro- 
ductive to  effect  a  good  growth  of  tree. 

The  Rome  Beauty  is  grown  with  fairly  good  success  in  the  lower 
Hudson  valley  and  at  low  elevations  in  western  New  York,  but 
there  is  some  question  as  to  whether  it  will  become  a  leading 
commercial  sort  in  either  region. 

Stayman  Winesap.  In  the  South  Mountain  and  Piedmont  dis- 
tricts of  Pennsylvania,  Stayman  Winesap  has  thus  far  given  good 
results.  In  Virginia  the  variety  does  well  on  a  heavy  loam  or 
even  light  clay  loam  underlain  by  clay  loam,  as  the  Porters  loam 
or  Porters  clay. 

The  Stayman  Winesap  is  an  apple  of  great  promise  in  southern 
and  central  Pennsylvania  and  for  the  middle  Appalachian  region 
to  the  south.  It  is  possibly  of  moderate  worth  also  in  the  Rhode 
Island  Greening  belt  of  southern  New  York  and  in  the  Hudson 
valley  region,  but  its  success  has  yet  to  be  demonstrated  for 
general  planting  in  New  York,  New  England,  and  at  high  alti- 
tudes in  northern  Pennsylvania.  Hence,  while  perhaps  worthy 
of  trial  in  favorable  locations  there,  commercial  plantings  are 
ill  advised  without  further  evidence  of  its  desirability  under  the 
existing  climatic  conditions.  In  the  southern  Appalachians  it 
becomes  too  early  in  many  places  for  an  apple  of  commercial 
importance,  not  succeeding  quite  as  far  south  as  the  old  Virginia 
Winesap,  but  it  is  desirable  for  local  markets.  In  the  mountains 
of  North  Carolina  it  grows  well,  is  productive,  and  readily  keeps 
in  good  condition  until  Christmas.  With  better  methods  of  hand- 
ling and  storing,  the  season  could  probably  be  somewhat  length- 
ened. The  medium-textured  members  of  the  Porters  soils  are 
adapted  to  its  growth  in  that  region. 

Wagener.  The  tree  is  weak  in  growth,  hence  a  soil  that  is 
deep,  strong,  mellow,  and  loamy  should  be  selected.  Stiff  subsoils 
are  especially  objectionable  with  this  variety,  and  thin  hills  should 
be  avoided.  The  Wagener  thus  fits  in  well  with  the  Northern  Spy 
in  soil  requirements,  and  its  early  bearing  makes  an  effective  offset 
to  the  latter's  tardiness  in  this  respect. 


ADAPTATION  OF  VARIETIES  TO   SOILS  2$ 

Winesap.  The  Winesap  is  a  standard  variety  of  Virginia  and 
the  southern  Appalachians  —  an  apple  of  good  quality  that  re- 
sponds readily  to  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  treatment,  and 
also  brings  surprisingly  good  returns  under  neglect. 

The  soil  need  not  be  so  rich  as  for  the  Yellow  Newtown, 
because  the  presence  of  too  much  organic  matter  detracts  from 
the  color  of  the  fruit,  yet  the  tendency  of  this  variety  to  yield  fruit 
below  standard  size  makes  desirable  a  soil  as  rich  as  may  be  while 
securing  a  well-colored  product.  Much  of  the  fruit  as  grown  has 
been  from  thin  soils,  and  little  or  no  effort  has  been  expended  in 
improving  the  condition  of  such  land.  This  has  accentuated  the 
tendency  of  the  variety  to  be  small. 

The  Winesap  is  adapted  to  both  the  Appalachian  and  the 
Piedmont  soils.  In  the  mountains  the  Porters  loam  and  loamy 
areas  of  Porters  clay  are  best ;  in  the  valley  of  Virginia  the 
Hagerstown  loam  and  Hagerstown  clay  loam  ;  and  on  the  Pied- 
mont plain  the  Cecil  loam  and  Cecil  clay.  The  Cecil  soils  are 
usually  so  deficient  in  organic  content,  as  a  result  of  exhausting 
systems  of  farming,  that  the  fruit  is  very  small  unless  the  land  is 
put  into  good  condition.  Fortunately  this  is  entirely  practicable 
under  present  conditions,  and  may  be  done  with  profit.  Hence 
selected  areas  in  the  Piedmont  plain  offer  good  opportunities  for 
developing  small  and  medium-sized  apple  projects  in  connection 
with  other  lines  of  farming.  The  Porters  soils  have  not  been  so 
reduced  in  productiveness  and  are  better  adapted  to  the  Winesap 
conditions,  but  the  valley  limestone  soils  there  represented  by  the 
Hagerstown  series  are  also  now  producing  the  Winesap  with  great 
success.  At  the  southern  end  of  the  Appalachians,  in  north 
Alabama,  the  Clarksville  stony  loam  is  also  well  adapted  to  this 
variety.  The  problem,  then,  with  the  Winesap  is  to  bring  the 
soils  adapted  to  it  into  a  productive  condition  and  then  to  thin 
the  fruit  where  economically  feasible. 

York  Imperial.  This  variety  is  adapted  to  an  extensive  scope 
of  territory.  This  would  naturally  give  rise  to  several  soil  series  of 
which  the  loamy  members  are  well  adapted  to  the  production  of 
this  apple.  The  so-called  "  soapstone  land  "  in  West  Virginia 
gives  excellent  results.  This  name  is  derived  from  the  rock 
formations,   which   range  from   a   schistose   limestone  to  a  limy 


26  THE  APPLE 

shale,  the  latter  when  in  small  pieces  of  disintegrated  rock  being 
characterized  by  a  soapy  feel. 

The  surface  of  this  soapstone  land  consists  for  the  most  part 
of  a  mellow  friable  loam,  which  is  usually  silty  and  in  local  areas 
is  a  silt  loam,  very  mellow  in  character.  The  surface  soil  is  from 
eight  to  twelve  inches  deep,  with  a  medium  brown  color.  This 
soil  is  extremely  friable  and  workable.  The  subsoil  consists  of 
yellow  friable  loam,  which  usually  grades  into  silty  clay  loam  at  a 
depth  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches. 

Both  soil  and  subsoil  contain  from  10  to  20  per  cent  of  smooth, 
shaly  fragments.  These  particles  are  of  yellowish  color,  small 
and  crumbly,  seldom  exceeding  one-quarter  inch  and  mostly  from 
one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth  inch  in  diameter.  The  amount  of 
these  increases  slightly  with  depth  to  an  average  depth  of  thirty 
inches,  below  which  is  found  a  subsoil  of  smooth,  plastic  yellow 
clay  loam  to  clay. 

From  the  preceding  descriptions  of  definite  soil  occurrence, 
an  idea  of  the  soils  adapted  to  the  York  Imperial  may  be  obtained. 
Extensive  areas  of  soil  types  mapped  and  described  in  various 
reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils  are  also  well  adapted  to  this  apple. 
Among  them  the  Hagerstown  loam  may  be  prominently  mentioned. 
Some  excellent  soils  for  this  variety  are  the  Porters  clay  and  the 
Floradale  stony  loam,  including  the  "  copperstone,"  the  "  gray 
flint,"  and  the  "  white  flint  "  phases.  The  surface  soils  are  friable, 
gray-brown  clay  loams  or  heavy  loams. 

The  Chester  loam  and  the  Chester  stony  loam,  as  they  occur  in 
Pennsylvania,  also  in  central  Maryland,  and  extending  for  a  little 
way  into  northern  Virginia  in  the  vicinity  of  Leesburg,  are  also 
excellent. 

The  York  Imperial  is  unsatisfactory  in  the  North.  This  variety 
should  not  be  grown  where  the  Baldwin  succeeds. 


CHAPTER   III1 


ORCHARD  HEATING 


Late  spring  frosts  cause  immense  losses  of  fruit  in  many  sec- 
tions of  the  country  and  help  to  discourage  growers  until  many 
of  them  neglect,  destroy,  or  dispose  of  their  orchards. 

Test  by  individuals  and  experiment  stations  that  have  tried 
out  heat  as  a  means  of  frost  protection  has  demonstrated  the 
following  facts  : 

i.  That  the  temperature  in  an 
orchard  can  be  raised  several  de- 
grees in  time  of  frost. 

2.  That  orchard  heating  as  a 
method  of  insurance  against  frost 
is  practical  in  many  sections  dur- 
ing most  seasons. 

The  type  of  heater  to  use.  The 
type  of  heater  to  be  used  must 
be  determined  by  each  grower  for 
himself.  In  a  general  way  it  may 
be  said  that  the  larger  heaters  will 
give  best  satisfaction,  as  they  fur- 
nish a  reservoir  for  the  storing  of  oil  for  longer  periods  of  firing. 
It  is  almost  impossible,  and  at  least  impracticable,  to  try  to 
refill  the  pots  during  the  night.  If  the  refilling  equipment  is 
not  working  well,  great  loss  is  apt  to  result.  A  gallon  of  oil 
will  burn  only  about  four  hours,  and  as  frost  periods  are  apt  to  be 
much  longer  than  this,  greater  capacity  is  needed.  Even  though 
some  heaters  may  burn  a  gallon  of  oil  for  a  longer  period  than 
four  hours,  there  must  be  a  loss  of  heat,  as  it  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  burning  oil  to  raise  the  temperature  a  given  amount.  If 
a  larger  number  of  the  smaller  heaters  are  provided,  so  that  a  part  can 
be  fired  in  the  early  part  of  the  night  and  the  remainder  at  successive 

1  After  Iowa  State  College  bulletins. 

27 


Fig.  5.    Three  different  types  of  or- 
chard heaters.     (Iowa   Agricultural 
Experiment  Station) 


28 


THE  APPLE 


periods,  they  will  give  as  good  satisfaction  as  the  larger  heaters. 
With  most  heaters  there  is  less  heat  given  off  as  the  oil  burns  low 
in  the  pot,  and  a  reserve  supply  of  heaters  should  be  on  hand  to 
take  care  of  this  deficiency.  In  addition  the  temperature  is  usually 
lower  just  before  sunrise  than  at  any  other  period,  and  the  burn- 
ing surface  of  the  oil  should  be  greater  at  this  time  than  earlier. 


ng  the  distributing  tank 


The  standpipe  in  the  rear  contains  the  storage  oil ;  the  oil  runs  by  gravity  through  the  pipe 

at  the  left.    Note  the  nozzle  for  filling  the  heaters  resting  on  the  front  wheel.    (After  Iowa 

State  College) 

Number  of  heaters  per  acre.  Of  the  smaller  heaters,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  use  from  80  to  120  per  acre  ;  probably  100  is  a  good 
average  number  to  use.  Of  the  larger  pots,  60  to  80  per  acre 
should  be  used.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  smaller  fires 
scattered  over  the  orchards  are  much  better  than  a  few  large  fires. 
In  using  the  large  heaters  it  is  not  wise  to  reduce  the  number  too 
low,  even  though  the  burning  surface  can  be  made  much  larger 
than  on  the  smaller  heaters.  Moreover,  in  using  a  large  number 
of  the  larger  heaters,  the  amount  of  the  flame  per  heater  can  be  re- 
duced, thus  giving  greater  reservoir  capacity  and  long-continued  fire. 


ORCHARD   HEATING  29 

The  oil  to  use.  At  present  the  smudge  oil  put  out  by  the  vari- 
ous oil  companies  seems  to  be  the  cheapest. 

Oil  can  be  purchased  in  tank-car  lots  from  i|-  cents  to  3  cents 
per  gallon.  In  barrels  it  will  cost  4 J,  cents  to  6  cents  per  gallon. 
The  amount  of  oil  necessary  will  depend  upon  the  number  of 
frosty  nights  and  the  length  of  time  that  heating  will  be  necessary. 
This  will  be  hard  to  forecast,  and  sufficient  oil  should  be  provided 
to  last  through  more  than  the  ordinary  number  of  frosty  nights. 
In  most  seasons  from  one  to  three  frosty  nights  are  encountered. 
The  frosty  period  usually  occurs  late  in  the  night,  after  midnight, 
and  lasts  until  sunrise.    From  three  to  five  hours  will  usually  cover 


Fig.  7.    Filling  orchard  heaters.    (Oregon  Agricultural  Experiment  Station) 

this  period.  However,  certain  nights  may  occur  when  it  will  be 
necessary  to  keep  the  fires  going  from  eight  to  ten  hours,  and 
others  when  perhaps  only  an  hour's  heating  will  be  necessary. 
From  three  to  six  gallons  of  oil  per  heater  should  be  provided. 
If  there  is  good  storage,  this  oil  will  keep  from  year  to  year,  so 
that  what  is  not  used  may  be  kept  over  for  the  next  season.  The 
grower  is  much  better  prepared  for  emergency  if  the  larger  amount 
of  oil  is  on  hand.  Oil  is  too  cheap  to  allow  shortage  of  supply 
to  occur. 

How  to  store  the  oil.  For  storing  oil  a  cement  cistern  lined 
with  asphalt  gives  the  best  results.  This  is  especially  true  if  the 
cistern  is  located  on  a  slope  so  that  the  oil  may  be  handled  by 
gravity  from  the  tank  wagon  to  the  cistern  and  from  the  cistern 
into  the  distributing  wagon.   These  oils  are  very  difficult  to  handle 


3Q 


THE  APPLE 


by  dipping  or  pumping  methods.   However,  the  rotary  pumps  have 
given  general  satisfaction  when  the  lighter  oils  have  been  used. 

The  cistern  walls  should  be  from  6  to  8  inches  thick  to 
give  the  best  results.  The  floor  need  not  be  so  heavy, 
probably  4  inches  thick  being  sufficient.  The  mixture 
used  should  be  composed  of  about  i  part  of  cement  to 
2  or  3  parts  of  sand.  If  crushed  rock  can  be  used  in  mix- 
ing the  concrete,  I  part  of  cement,  2  to  3  parts  of  sand, 
and  4  or  5  parts  of  crushed  rock  will  give  good  results. 
The  walls  should  then  be  finished  with  cement  plaster, 
thus  giving  a  smoother  surface.  The  whole  inside  should 
be  painted  with  two  or  three  coats  of  asphalt  paint. 
Paraffin  has  not  given  thorough  satisfaction  among  some 
of  the  Middle-West  growers.  The  roof  of  the  cistern 
can  be  made  of  a  reenforced  cement  slab.  This  slab 
will  vary  in  thickness  according  to  the  width  of  the 
cistern,  but  if  it  is  not  over  8  feet  wide,  a  well  reenforced 
slab  5  inches  in  thickness  should  be  sufficient. 

A  method  of  distribut- 
ing the  oil.  In  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  oil,  wagons 
holding  300  to  400  gal- 
lons will  be  the  best  size. 
These  should  be  suffi- 
ciently high  so  that  good 
pressure  can  be  obtained 
at  the  end  of  the  hose 
used  for  filling  the  pots. 
A  tank  for  this  purpose 
can  be  secured  at  from 
$15.00  to  $20.00.  If  10 
acres  or  more  are  to  be 
protected,  it  will  be  well 
to  provide  two  wagons  ; 
and  as  these  can  be  used  in  transporting  the  oil  from  the  tank 
car,  they  will  be  found  almost  indispensable.  It  is  very  important 
that  these  tanks  be  perfectly  tight  and  that  pipe  connections 
be  tight,  with  good  solid  valves.    Handling  the  oil  is  a  dirty  job 


Fig.  8.    Torch  and  can  used  in  orchard  heating 
(Iowa  State  College  Experiment  Station) 


ORCHARD  HEATING  31 

at  best,  and  unless  all  leakages  are  prevented,  it  becomes  doubly 
disagreeable.    One  should  dress  for  dirty,  oily  work. 

How  to  light  the  pots.  The  pots  are  lighted  by  the  use  of  a 
gasoline  can  with  valve  fixture,  which  makes  it  possible  to  squirt  a 
small  amount  of  gasoline  on  top  of  the  fuel  oil.  A  torch  can  be 
made  of  a  corncob  fastened  to  a  piece  of  wire  and  soaked  in  fuel  oil. 

It  requires  about  forty-five  minutes  for  three  men  to  light  600 
pots,  but  one  man  could  easily  light  300  pots  per  hour,  providing 
his  torches  and  gasoline  can  worked  well. 

When  to  light  heaters.  The  temperature  at  which  the  fires 
shall  be  lighted  will  depend  upon  the  predicted  temperature  for 


Fig.  9.    Heating  a  small  home  orchard  with  fire  pots  in  full  blaze.    (After  Iowa 
State  College) 

the  night  and  the  rapidity  with  which  the  temperature  falls.  If  a 
very  cold  period  is  expected  or  if  the  temperature  is  falling  rapidly, 
the  fires  should  be  lighted  when  the  temperature  is  several  degrees 
above  the  danger  point,  probably  33  degrees.  If  but  little  frost  is 
expected  or  if  the  temperatures  are  falling  slowly,  the  heaters  need 
not  be  lighted  until  the  temperature  very  nearly  reaches  the  danger 
point,  29  or  30  degrees. 

Predicting  the  temperature.  The  orchardist  should  provide 
himself  with  such  information  and  equipment  as  will  enable  him 
to  know  when  to  expect  frost  and  freezing  temperatures.  The 
United  States  Weather  Bureau  sends  out  daily  forecasts  for  the 
succeeding  twenty-four  hours.  The  orchardist  should  supplement 
the  forecasts  sent  out  by  the  Weather  Bureau  by  his  own  obser- 
vations.   Local  conditions  influence  the  temperature  and  humidity 


3^ 


THE  APPLE 


to  a  large  extent.  The  sling  psychrometer  is  used  for  measuring  the 
dew  point,  or  the  temperature  at  which  dew  will  form.  There  is  a 
close  relationship  between  the  dew  point  and  the  minimum  temper- 
ature of  the     ^gj^     night,  providing  the  observations  are  made 

late  in  the  evening  and  the 
sky  remains  clear,  with  but 
little  wind. 

The  sling  psychrometer. 
This  instrument  consists  of  a 
pair  of  thermometers  provided 
with  a  handle  which  permits 
the  thermometers  to  be  whirled 
rapidly,  the  bulbs  being  thereby 
strongly  affected  by  the  tem- 
perature and  the  moisture  in 
the  air.  The  bulb  of  the  lower 
of  the  two  thermometers  is  cov- 
ered with  thin  muslin,  which  is 
wet  at  the  time  an  observation 
is  made. 

How  to  make  an  observa- 
tion. The  so-called  wet  bulb 
is  thoroughly  saturated  with 
water  by  dipping  it  into  a 
small  cup  or  wide-mouthed 
bottle.  The  thermometers  are 
then  whirled  rapidly  for  fifteen 
or  twenty  seconds,  stopped, 
and  quickly  read,  the  wet  bulb 
first.  This  reading  is  kept  in 
mind,  the  psychrometer  im- 
mediately whirled  again  and  a 
second  reading  taken.  This 
is  repeated  three  or  four  times, 
or  more  if  necessary,  until  at  least  two  successive  readings  of  the 
wet  bulb  are  found  to  agree  very  closely,  thereby  showing  that  it 
has  reached  its  lowest  temperature.  A  minute  or  more  is  generally 
required  to  secure  the  correct  temperature.  These  readings  are  then 


el^ 


J 

V  ET 

J, 

^120' 

Z 

-  1. 

z 

:  101 
J  90 

- 

Uo 

-70   \ 

L&3 

\ 

3  _ 

l«0 

H 

ho 

a 

■40 

\ 

-30 

] 

«  -20 

1 

FlG.  io.   A  psychrometer 

An  instrument  that  has  proved  of  much  value 
in  predicting  frosts.  (After  Iowa  State  College) 


ORCHARD   HEATING 


33 


PSYCHROMETRIC  TABLE,  AIR  PRESSURE  29  INCHES 

Table  for  determining  the  Temperature  of  Dew  Point 
ix  Degrees  Fahrenheit 


Air  tempera- 
tureindegrees 

Dew  point  when  the  difference  between  the  wet 
temperature  is 

bulb  and  dry-bulb 

Fahrenheit 

i°F. 

2°F. 

3CF. 

4°F. 

s  K. 

6°F. 

7°F. 

8°F. 

9°F. 

io°F. 

n°F. 

12°  F. 

•3°  F. 

i4°F. 

■5°F. 

35 

33 

30 

28 

25 

22 

18 

'4 

8 

I 

-8 

-  38 

36 

34 

31 

29 

26 

23 

20 

15 

11 

4 

-4 

-19 

37 

35 

r- 

30 

27 

24 

21 

17 

13 

7 

-  1 

-  12 

-44 

38 

36 

33 

31 

_s 

26 

23 

19 

14 

9 

3 

-7 

-25 

39 

37 

34 

32 

29 

27 

24 

21 

16 

12 

6 

-3 

-  16 

40 

38 

35 

33 

31 

28 

25 

22 

iS 

14 

8 

1 

-  10 

-35 

41 

39 

37 

34 

3- 

29 

26 

23 

20 

16 

11 

4 

-5 

-  21 

42 

40 

38 

35 

33 

3° 

28 

25 

21 

17 

13 

7 

-  1 

-J3 

-59 

43 

41 

39 

36 

34 

31 

29 

26 

23 

19 

15 

10 

3 

-7 

-28 

44 

4? 

40 

38 

35 

32 

3° 

27 

24 

21 

17 

12 

6 

2 

-17 

45 

43 

41 

39 

36 

34 

31 

29 

26 

22 

19 

14 

8 

-  2 

-9 

-37 

46 

44 

42 

40 

37 

35 

32 

3° 

27 

24 

20 

16 

11 

5 

-4 

-  20 

47 

45 

43 

41 

39 

36 

34 

3i 

28 

25 

22 

iS 

13 

8 

0 

-  12 

48 

46 

11 

42 

40 

37 

35 

32 

30 

27 

23 

20 

i5 

10 

4 

-6 

49 

47 

45 

43 

4i 

39 

36 

34 

31 

28 

25 

21 

17 

13 

7 

-2 

50 

48 

46 

44 

42 

40 

37 

35 

32 

29 

27 

23 

19 

i5 

9 

2 

5i 

49 

47 

45 

43 

41 

39 

36 

34 

3i 

28 

25 

21 

17 

12 

6 

52 

50 

48 

46 

44 

42 

40 

37 

35 

32 

29 

26 

23 

19 

14 

9 

53 

51 

49 

47 

45 

43 

4i 

39 

36 

34 

3i 

28 

24 

21 

16 

11 

54 

52 

50 

49 

47 

44 

42 

40 

38 

35 

32 

29 

26 

23 

19 

14 

55 

53 

52 

5° 

48 

46 

43 

41 

39 

36 

34 

3i 

28 

24 

21 

16 

56 

54 

53 

5i 

49 

47 

45 

43 

40 

38 

35 

32 

29 

26 

23 

19 

57 

55 

54 

52 

50 

48 

46 

44 

42 

39 

36 

34 

3i 

28 

24 

21 

58 

56 

55 

53 

51 

49 

47 

45 

43 

40 

38 

35 

32 

29 

26 

22 

59  . 

57 

56 

54 

52 

5° 

48 

46 

44 

42 

39 

37 

34 

3i 

28 

24 

60 

58 

57 

55 

53 

5i 

49 

47 

45 

43. 

41 

38 

35 

32 

29 

26 

61 

59 

58 

56 

54 

52 

5i 

49 

46 

44 

42 

39 

37 

34 

31 

28 

62 

60 

59 

57 

55 

54 

52 

5° 

48 

46 

43 

41 

38 

35 

32 

3° 

63 

61 

60 

58 

56 

55 

53 

5' 

49 

47 

45 

42 

40 

37 

34 

3i 

64 

62 

61 

59 

58 

56 

54 

52 

5o 

48 

46 

44 

41 

38 

36 

33 

65 

63 

62 

60 

59 

57 

55 

53 

5' 

49 

47 

45 

43 

40 

37 

34 

66 

64 

63 

61 

60 

58 

56 

54 

53 

51 

48 

46 

44 

42 

39 

36 

67 

65 

64 

62 

61 

59 

57 

56 

54 

52 

50 

48 

45 

43 

40 

38 

68 

67 

65 

63 

62 

60 

58 

57 

55 

53 

51 

49 

47 

44 

42 

39 

69 

68 

66 

64 

63 

61 

60 

58 

56 

54 

52 

5° 

48 

46 

43 

41 

70 

69 

67 

66 

64 

62 

61 

59 

57 

55 

53 

51 

49 

47 

45 

42 

34  THE  APPLE 

referred  to  what  are  known  as  psychrometric  tables,  from  which 
the  temperature  at  which  dew  or  frost  will  form  may  be  found. 

Psychrometric  readings  should  be  made  late  in  the  evening,  and 
the  dew  point  will  be  approximately  the  lowest  temperature  of  the 
following  night.  Practice  in  making  these  readings  and  records 
of  the  predicted  dew  point  and  lowest  temperatures  occurring  for 
several  nights  previous  to  the  frosty  time  will  familiarize  the 
observer  with  the   use  of  the   instrument. 

Heating  the  small  home  orchard.  The  practicability  of  heating 
small  orchards  is  often  questioned.  It  is  comparatively  much  easier 
to  heat  a  large  area  than  a  small  one.  But  there  are  many  home 
orchards,  both  on  farms  and  on  city  lots,  where  oftentimes  the  fruit 
is  more  highly  prized  than  it  would  be  in  a  commercial  orchard. 

After  the  first  year's  cost  of  installation,  the  cost  of  protecting 
the  home  orchard  will  amount  to  between  one  and  two  dollars  per 
acre  per  hour.  No  estimate  of  the  cost  of  labor  or  of  oil  storage  is 
given,  as  the  owners  of  small  tracts  can  easily  handle  the  equip- 
ment without  extra  labor.  The  oil  will  come  in  barrels  and  can  be 
distributed  from  these,  so  that  no  storage  is  necessary. 

Where  the  fruit  is  highly  prized,  this  expense  will  not  be  pro- 
hibitive, and  under  ordinary  conditions  the  fruit  can  be  saved 
on  small  areas.  Windbreaks  will  be  found  especially  valuable  in 
protecting  small  areas  during  high  winds. 

The  need  of  thermometers.  Accurate  thermometers  should  be 
provided.  At  least  one  high-grade  tested  thermometer  should  be 
available  in  order  to  test  less  expensive  ones.  Faulty  instruments 
are  sure  to  cause  loss,  as  firing  may  be  begun  too  late  and  injury 
to  buds  result,  or  if  the  heaters  are  lighted  before  the  danger 
point  is  reached,  fuel  is  lost  which  may  be  needed  at  a  critical 
time  before  sunrise. 

An  electric-alarm  thermometer  can  be  secured  for  about  twenty 
dollars  which  will  ring  an  alarm  when  the  danger  point  at  which  it 
is  set  is  reached.  This  will  save  considerable  loss  of  sleep,  which 
is  valuable  if  several  frosty  nights  arc  experienced  and  when  the 
spraying  season  demands  attention. 

It  will  be  well  to  place  the  thermometer  by  which  the  fires  are 
to  be  lighted  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  orchard.  Cool  air  settles  in 
low  places,  and  these  are  often  much  cooler  than  the  higher  points. 


ORCHARD  HEATING  35 

The  probable  cost  for  a  ten-acre  orchard.  Any  estimate  on  the 
cost  of  heating  an  orchard  must  be  approximate,  because  of  the 
variable  factors  which  enter.  Equipment,  cost  of  fuel,  distance 
from  railroad  siding,  and  length  of  firing  period  vary  in  different 
localities  and  seasons.  The  following  estimate  for  a  ten-acre 
orchard  is  submitted  as  a  guide  only. 

650  heaters  at  30  cents  to  50  cents  each     .     .  $195.00  to  $325.00 

3000  to  6000  gallons  of  oil  at  3  cents     .     .     .  90.00  to     i.So.oo 

One  steel  wagon  tank 15.00  to       25.00 

Lighters,  torches,  etc 6.00  to       10.00 

Thermometers 6.00  to         8.00 

Storage  for  oil  at  75  cents  per  barrel      .     .      .  63.30  to     126.00 

Total $375-3°  to  $674.60 

If  smaller  heaters  are  used,  more  will  be  required  and  thus  the 
cost  will  vary  but  little.  Labor  items  are  omitted.  At  firing  time 
two  men  ought  to  handle  the  ten  acres  at  a  cost  of  $5.00  to  $6.00. 
This  equipment  will  last  for  several  years,  and  after  the  first  year, 
labor  and  fuel  will  be  the  only  expense  and  should  not  exceed 
$10.00  to  $20.00  per  acre  annually.  If  the  crop  is  well  cared  for, 
it  is  worth  from  $100.00  to  $400.00  per  acre,  and  insurance  at 
so  small  a  cost  is  good  investment.  Such  insurance  is  not  recom- 
mended for  the  man  who  does  not  make  his  orchard  produce 
maximum  crops. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SELECTION  OF  THE  TREES 

The  question  of  just  what  is  best  for  the  grower  as  regards 
trees  is  always  very  perplexing.  One  man  will  argue  that  the  best 
trees  are  those  which  are  home-raised  and  home-grafted.  Another 
will  combat  this  statement  with  equal  force,  saying  that  the  nursery 
trees  are  by  far  the  best,  as  they  are  the  product  of  skilled  men. 
However,  it  is  not  so  important  who  grows  the  trees  as  whether 
the  trees  are  first-class  stock  ? 

First-class  stock.  Now,  just  what  is  meant  by  first-class  stock? 
The  general  conception  of  a  first-class  tree  is  one  that  has  been 
well  grown,  generally  being  large  for  its  age,  with  smooth  bark, 
straight  trunk,  and  with  a  well-formed,  thrifty,  stocky  head.  To 
this  should  be  added  that  the  tree  should  be  insect  and  disease 
free  and  have  the  characteristic  of  the  particular  variety. 

Taking  up  each  of  these  essential  factors  in  the  order  given,  it 
is  possible  to  obtain  a  better  understanding  of  the  requirements 
of  a  tree  as  regards  its  classification  as  first-class  or  not. 

A  well-grown  tree  is  one  that  has  had  a  normal  amount  of  room, 
or  lack  of  too  close  competition  with  its  neighbor,  so  that  its  de- 
velopment aboveground  has  not  been  stunted  by  lack  of  sunlight. 
Below  ground  there  has  been  enough  space  in  the  thoroughly 
prepared  soil,  and  enough  food  contained  in  the  soil,  so  that  a 
thrifty,  vigorous  collection  of  roots  has  been  developed. 

Oftentimes  in  the  hands  of  nurserymen,  where  nursery  stock 
follows  nursery  stock,  the  soil  runs  out  so  quickly  that  it  is  not 
possible  to  grow  first-class  stock  after  a  few  years  owing  to  the 
poor  physical  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  lack  of  proper  food  in 
it.  Again,  some  nurserymen  have  a  tendency  to  plant  the  stock 
too  closely,  and  the  competition  between  individual  plants  is  so 
great  that  the  stock  develops  into  a  very  tall,  spindly  tree,  which, 
as  a  rule,  is  not  the  kind  that  should  be  considered  as  included 
under  the  heading  "first-class  stock." 

36 


SELECTION  OF  THE  TREES  37 

It  is  not  always  possible  for  an  amateur  to  detect  whether  or 
not  a  tree  is  large  for  its  age,  owing  to  his  lack  of  practical  experi- 
ence. However,  experienced  men  can  almost  always  detect  the 
fact  that  a  tree  is  above  the  average  as  regards  its  size  for  its  age. 

No  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  a  tree  one  year 
from  bud  or  two  years  from  root  graft,  or  some  other  age.  The 
following  may  serve  as  a  guide. 

A  tree  one  year  from  bud  should  be  3  feet  to  3  feet  6  inches  tall  if  well 
grown. 

A  tree  two  years  from  bud  should  be  3  feet  6  inches  to  4  feet  6  inches  tall  if 
well  grown. 

A  tree  three  years  from  bud  should  be  4  feet  to  6  feet  tall  if  well  grown. 

A  tree  one  year  from  root  graft  should  be  3  feet  to  4  feet  tall  if  well  grown. 

A  tree  two  years  from  root  graft  should  be  3  feet  6  inches  to  5  feet  tall  if 
well  grown. 

A  tree  three  years  from  root  graft  should  be  4  feet  to  6  feet  tall  if  well  grown. 

Not  only  should  the  height  of  trees  be  noticed  but  the  diameter  of 
the  trunks  as  well.  This  diameter  of  the  trunk  should  be  taken 
six  inches  above  the  graft  union. 

The  following  figures  for  a  well-grown,  first-class  tree  will  serve 
as  a  guide  for  the  inexperienced. 

Diameter 

Tree  one  year  from  bud |  to  \  of  an  inch 

Tree  two  years  from  bud i  to  |  of  an  inch 

Tree  three  years  from  bud |  to  |-  of  an  inch 

Tree  one  year  from  root  graft |  to  1  of  an  inch 

Tree  two  years  from  root  graft \  to  |  of  an  inch 

Tree  three  years  from  root  graft |  to  f  of  an  inch 

Have  you  ever  noticed  the  bark  of  trees  —  how  some  trees 
have  bark  that  appears  dark,  dry,  and  dead,  generally  rough  and 
unthrifty  looking,  while  other  trees  have  smooth,  bright  bark  that 
almost  spells  live,  healthy,  vigorous  growth  ? 

Many  times  in  grafting,  especially  budding,  careful  attention  as 
to  the  time  to  cut  the  stock  above  the  bud  is  not  systematically 
given,  and  it  is  found  that  the  budded  growth  is  forced  to  grow  out 
quite  crooked.  Other  times  mechanical  injury,  lack  of  proper  sun- 
light, or  some  other  cause  will  force  the  tree  to  have  a  very  crooked 
growth  of  stem  and  sometimes  a  crooked  top  as  well.  This  crooked- 
ness disqualifies  the  tree  as  a  first-class  stock. 


38  THE  APPLE 

A  well-formed,  thrifty,  stocky  head  is  only  obtained  where  there 
is  a  balance  in  the  development  of  the  top.  This  balance  is  secured 
by  placing  each  tree  so  that  it  has  equal  advantages  for  sunlight 
on  every  side,  also  by  giving  it  proper  pruning,  in  order  that 
this  balance  may  be  maintained,  and  lastly  lack  of  mechanical  or 
other  injury. 

A  tree  may  be  insect  and  disease  free,  providing  proper  atten- 
tion be  given  to  spraying  while  the  tree  is  growing  and  proper 
fumigation  just  previous  to  the  time  the  tree  is  sold  or  purchased. 
Other  factors  enter  into  this  disease-and-insect  question,  such  as 
prevention  of  contamination  by  improved  sanitary  conditions  and 
lack  of  troubles  of  a  like  nature  on  older  trees  near  by,  etc. 

Trees  that  are  purchased  from  nursery  firms  are  generally  dug 
in  the  fall  and  sold  during  the  spring.  It  is  very  important,  there- 
fore, that  these  trees  should  have  correct  conditions  in  the  storage 
houses,  so  that  they  are  well  preserved  and  do  not  lose  any  part  of 
their  vitality.  If  the  tree  looks  black,  with  the  bark  more  or  less 
shriveled,  probably  old  looking,  or  if  the  bark  seems  loose  and  not 
thrifty  looking,  then  the  tree  has  suffered  mismanagement  while  in 
storage  and  is  not  in  the  best  condition  for  satisfactory  growth.  It 
would  be  much  better  to  discard  such  trees  or  send  them  back. 
Anyway,  do  not  plant  them. 

Enough  has  been  given  concerning  the  qualifications  of  stock  in 
order  to  include  it  under  the  title  "  first-class  stock."  However,  the 
question  of  the  age  of  the  trees  recommended  to  plant  has  not  been 
discussed.  What  shall  I  plant,  one-year-old  trees  or  two-year  old  ? 
This  is  one  of  the  most  disputed  of  all  apple-tree  questions.  A 
very  successful  grower  in  Oregon  claims  that  little  or  no  difference 
has  been  marked  between  one-year-old  and  two-year-old  trees. 

It  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  trees  grown  in  the  North- 
ern states  are  preferable  to  those  grown  in  the  Southern  states.  This 
statement  is  disputed  quite  emphatically  by  some  practical  growers 
and  by  some  experimenters,  their  claim  being  that  it  makes  little 
or  no  difference  where  the  stock  is  grown  providing  the  trees  are 
in  every  way  first-class.  There  is  considerable  truth  in  this  idea. 
Still,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  plants  have  a  tendency  to  modify 
or  change  their  natural  habit  of  growth  under  changed  conditions. 
Also,  men  in  different  localities  have  varied  opinions  upon  tree 


SELECTION  OF  THE  TREES 


39 


production  in  the  nurseries.  From  what  little  we  know  at  present 
upon  this  question,  it  would  seem  advisable  to  stick  to  the  older, 
more  general  idea  that  trees  developed  in  nurseries  near  one's 
farm  are  more  highly  recommended  for  planting,  provided  they 
are  first-class  stock. 

Standards  versus  dwarfs.  As  a  rule  the  average  commercial 
grower  in  America  bothers  but  little  with  the  dwarf  apple  trees. 
However,  in  the  older  countries  across  the  ocean,  there  are 
many  instances  of  success  in  the  cultivation  of  these  dwarf  apples. 


"..''     ,-•.           'f            ■:.                           ■■''      •■'_'■      y.         '.'Si': 

HI 

Kllli 

Hi 

Fig.  i  i.    Where  the  young  trees  are  started 
A  portion  of  a  nursery  at  Dansville,  New  York 

One  not  familiar  with  the  term  "  dwarf  "  might  ask,  What  is  a 
dwarf  ?  A  dwarf  is  a  certain  variety  of  fruit,  in  this  case  an  apple, 
which  is  grown  upon  a  slower-growing  stock  so  that  the  limbs  or 
top  of  the  tree  may  never  attain  normal  size.  Examples  of  this 
would  be  the  top  or  limbs  of  the  Red  Astrachan,  Alexander, 
Dutchess,  Northern  Spy,  King,  Jonathan,  etc.  grafted  upon  the 
so-called  Paradise  or  Doucin  or  some  other  very  small-growing 
apple  plant. 

A  well-grown,  carefully  attended  dwarf  apple  will  attain  the  height 
of  from  5  to  8  feet  in  twenty-five  to  thirty  years.  Undoubtedly,  a 
tree  of  this  size  offers  many  advantages  over  a  larger-growing 
tree  in  the  ease  of  spraying,  pruning,  picking,  etc. 


40 


THE  APPLE 


The  average  orchard  in  America,  nevertheless,  is  of  the  standard 
type.  A  standard  apple  has  been  grafted  upon  a  free-growing  or 
ordinary  seedling  tree,  the  grafted  variety  through  this  union  being 
able  in  general  to  grow  to  large  size. 

In  the  standard  trees  the  trunk  is  left  bare  of  limbs  from  the 
height  of  1 8  inches  to  8  feet.  The  general  tendency  to-day  is  for 
a  lower-branching  tree,  and  the  older  standard  of  5  to  8  feet  tree 
trunk  is  fast  giving  way  to  trunks  only  12,  18,  and  24  inches 
in  length. 

Recommendations  for  the  average  orchardist  are  to  grow  the  low 
standards.  The  specialist,  however,  may  be  able,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, to  cultivate  with  great  profit  the  more  intensive  dwarf  apples. 
Dwarfs  are  also  deserving  of  a  place  in  the  home  garden,  where 
special  care  and  attention  will  be  given. 

Pedigree  trees.  The  now  generally  accepted  term  "  pedigree 
tree  "  is  described  as  a  fruit  tree  —  in  the  present  case  an  apple 
tree  —  of  proved  strain  ;  that  is,  a  tree  which  produces  fruit  of 
high  quality,  color,  and  characteristic  markings  of  the  variety, 
provided  the  tree  is  healthy  and  free  from  disease  at  the  time 
the  buds,  or  scions,  are  taken. 

These  trees,  therefore,  would  be  the  results  of  selecting  scions 
from  trees  that  bear  fruit  which  is  able  to  win  prizes  at  the 
horticultural-society  exhibitions,  following  this  selection  by  still 
later  choice  from  the  grafted  offspring  of  the  parent,  and  so  on 
year  after  year. 

This  is  quite  different  from  the  usual  cutting  of  scions  by  nursery- 
men. Many  of  these  men  obtain  their  scions  from  the  blocks  of 
nursery  stock  previously  propagated  and  not  from  bearing  trees. 
This  common  practice  is  not  a  desirable  method,  as  the  tendency 
would  be  to  produce  trees  away  from  the  idea  of  fruiting.  However, 
there  are  nurserymen  and  orchardists  that  do  practice  a  selection  or 
pedigree  system  of  producing  nursery  stock.  These  men  have  noted 
the  peculiarities  of  individual-bearing  trees,  and  when  one  tree  of 
this  variety  excels,  or  one  tree  of  another  variety  excels  after  several 
years  of  bearing,  scions  are  cut  from  these  choice  trees  and  used  for 
reproduction  (grafting).  The  progeny  is,  as  well,  closely  watched  and 
careful  notes  taken,  and  soon  trees  are  sold  which  have  known 
parentage  just  as  much  as  some  of  our  registered  horses  or  cows. 


SELECTION  OF  THE  TREES  41 

From  the  above  facts  it  is  easily  recognized  that  pedigree  trees 
should  be  more  highly  recommended  for  planting  than  any  other 
trees.  This  is  especially  so  if  the  great  law  "Like  begets  like" 
is  as  constant  as  it  has  appeared  to  be  in  this  same  systematic 
work  among  animals. 

When  to  order.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  average  nurseryman 
digs  his  trees  in  the  fall  and  sells  them  through  the  winter  and 
spring,  it  is  undoubtedly  best  to  have  one's  orders  in  the  hands 
of  the  nurseryman  very  early,  either  in  the  late  summer  or  early 
fall.  By  so  doing,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  some  of  the  choicest 
stock,  and  this  practically  insures  the  grower  in  obtaining  trees 
for  future  planting. 

Where  the  order  is  placed  later  it  is  often  found  that  certain 
varieties  are  all  sold  out,  and  of  course  these  are  always  the 
varieties  most  wanted. 

This  early  ordering  helps  the  nurseryman  greatly,  as  it  informs 
him  fullv  just  how  many  of  each  variety  should  be  dug.  It  also 
places  him  in  a  position  to  give  an  order  the  very  best  atten- 
tion, as  he  will  generally  have  more  time  during  the  winter  to 
work  up  these  orders,  subsequently  packing  and  shipping  them 
in  the  very  best  manner,  as  well  as  just  when  one  may  wish  to 
have  them. 

To  sum  up,  make  out  your  list  and  order  early. 

From  whom  to  order.  The  transient  tree  agent  has  helped  in 
various  ways  to  bring  about  a  better  understanding  of  fruit  trees 
and  business.  Go  through  any  section  of  the  country  and  one 
will  see  the  results  of  traveling  tree  agents.  In  a  certain  section 
of  Vermont,  for  example,  trees  of  varying  ages  were  studied  as 
to  variety,  with  the  result  that  different  tree  agents'  influence  was 
shown.  One  year  it  was  Montreal  Peach  apple  planted  through- 
out that  section,  a  few  years  later  the  Ben  Davis,  at  another  time 
the  Fameuse,  again  the  Alexander,  later  the  Dutchess  and  Yellow 
Transparent,  each  variety  representing  the  work  of  some  tree 
agent  for  one  year. 

Oftentimes,  though,  the  unscrupulous  agent  has  worked  more 
injury  than  good.  Generally,  none  of  these  agents  represents  a 
truly  reliable  nursery,  and  unless  the  nursery  is  reliable,  who  cares 
to  buy  trees  of  unknown  value  ?     Therefore,  the   best  persons 


42  THE  APPLE 

from  whom  to  order  apple  trees  are  near-by,  trustworthy  men  who 
can  back  up  their  statements  with  the  goods.  Next  to  these  would 
be  placed  the  reliable  firms  in  various  sections  of  the  United 
States  who  do  not  overstate  their  products  and  who  have  some 
rating  in  the  business  world.  Practically  all  others  are  frauds,  and 
the  trees  will  be  of  questionable  value. 

What  to  do  with  the  trees  when  received.  When  received 
from  the  nurseryman  the  bundle  of  trees  should  be  immediately 
removed  from  the  box  or  taken  out  of  the  burlap  bagging  and  the 
binding  twine  severed.  Following  this,  they  should  be  planted  as 
quickly  as  possible.  However,  if  this  planting  is  not  convenient, 
the  trees  may  be  "heeled  in." 

The  process  of  heeling  in  is  very  simple,  consisting  of  dig- 
ging a  hole  in  the  ground  about  18  inches  deep  and  placing  the 
roots  of  the  trees  in  the  bottom  of  this  excavation,  having  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  make  an  angle  with  the  surface  of  the  ground 
of  about  45  degrees.  Pack  the  moist  soil  tightly  about  the  roots, 
covering  them  about  4  to  6  inches  deep,  then  place  another 
layer  of  loose  trees  against  this  dirt  and  at  the  same  angle  as 
the  first  layer.  Place  the  dirt  on  as  before,  then  another  layer  of 
trees,  and  so  on  until  all  the  trees  are  heeled  in.  If  the  soil  is 
inclined  to  be  dry,  or  if  the  work  is  hurried,  it  would  be  well  to 
pour  several  pails  of  water  onto  this  soil  after  the  trees  are  all 
heeled  in.  This  water  will  pack  the  earth  tightly  about  the  roots, 
preventing  drying  out. 

The  trees  may  be  taken  out  from  this  heeled-in  position  as 
wanted  for  planting. 

Trees  received  in  the  fall  may  be  kept  quite  satisfactorily  over 
winter,  in  some  sections,  by  this  heeled-in  method. 


CHAPTER  V 
WINDBREAKS 

The  popular  mind  is  much  confused  over  the  question  of  wind- 
breaks. This  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  because  even  growers 
have  not  clear,  definite  ideas  on  this  much-criticized  subject.  It 
is  undoubtedly  true,  if  actual  benefit  could  be  seen  in  all  cases 
from  planting  windbreaks,  that  more  general  planting  of  trees 
for  the  purpose  of  checking  severe  winds  would  be  common. 

Object  of  windbreaks.  The  primary  object  in  the  planting  of 
a  windbreak  is  to  protect  the  trees  from  injury  from  the  unob- 
structed winds,  especially  the  prevailing  winds  which  are  so 
common  in  about  every  locality. 

Besides  this,  there  are  other  benefits  that  are  a  direct  outcome 
of  this  protection.  Sometimes  strong  winds  are  able  to  remove 
some  of  the  light  topsoil  if  not  checked  by  tree  growth.  Not  only 
may  some  of  the  soil  be  removed  but  large  amounts  of  moisture 
may  be  evaporated  from  the  soil  by  the  passing  of  this  high  wind 
over  the  surface.  This  loss  of  moisture  may  be  a  great  detriment 
to  the  future  development  of  the  apple  trees,  as  it  may  so  deplete 
the  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil  that  growth  may  be  hindered  to 
a  considerable  extent. 

There  are  many  other  benefits  that  may  be  cited  as  a  result  of 
windbreaks  planted  near  an  apple  orchard.  These,  however,  will 
be  brought  out  more  fully  under  the  advantages  of  windbreaks. 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  windbreaks.  Advantages. 
According  to  the  best  information  on  the  subject  of  windbreaks, 
the  following  advantages  are  cited : 

i .  Winds  partake  of  the  temperature  of  bodies  over  which  they 
pass  ;  therefore,  a  wind  passing  over  a  cold  body  of  water  or  snow 
would  have  about  the  same  temperature  as  this  matter.  If  this 
wind  were  unchecked,  it  might  cause  great  injury  in  an  apple 
orchard  through  which  it  passed.  The  first  advantage,  then,  is 
protection  from  cold. 

43 


44  THE  APPLE 

2.  Not  only  does  wind  take  up  lower  temperatures  from  matter 
it  passes  over,  but  it  is  subject  to  rise  in  temperature,  as  well. 
Wind  passing  over  very  dry,  hot  land  would  partake  somewhat  of 
the  same  temperature.  Then  if  this  wind  should  pass  through  an 
unprotected  orchard,  a  large  amount  of  moisture  would  be  taken 
from  the  soil,  thereby  tending  to  increase  the  injury  from  drought. 

3.  Unprotected  sections  of  land  are  often  subjected  to  loss  of 
snow  in  winter  by  the  blowing  away  of  the  snow.  Leaves  and 
other  protecting  matter  may  also  be  blown  away  by  a  free,  sweep- 
ing wind.  This  removal  of  the  protective  bodies,  such  as  snow, 
leaves,  and  so  forth,  from  the  soil  would  result  in  deep  freezing  of 
the  soil  in  winter  and  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation  in  summer. 
With  the  installation  of  a  properly  constructed  windbreak,  both  of 
these  injuries  would  be  averted. 

4.  During  the  winter  there  are  frequent  heavy  snowstorms  or 
storms  where  ice  is  formed  upon  the  trees.  If  to  this  load  of 
ice  is  added  the  high  winds,  great  danger  is  wrought  by  the 
breaking  of  the  limbs  of  the  apple  trees.  Windbreaks  would  serve 
as  a  preventive  in  cases  of  a  like  nature. 

5.  Many  times  in  the  fall  the  estimate  of  the  apple  crop  in  a 
certain  locality  is  placed  very  high,  owing  to  the  loaded  condition 
of  the  trees.  Later  there  occurs  one  of  those  sweeping,  destruc- 
tive windstorms,  and  the  unprotected  trees  lose,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, their  bumper  crop.  Windbreaks  properly  placed  and  made 
up  of  the  necessary  varieties  of  trees  would  have  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  lessening  the  number  of  windfall  sduring  the  time  just 
previous  to  harvesting. 

6.  As  one  passes  through  the  country  and  notices  the  apple  trees, 
a  particular  fact  is  in  evidence.  Orchards  on  exposed  places  have  a 
tendency  to  "  cant  "  the  trees  in  one  direction  or  another.  In  one 
section  the  trees  may  lean  toward  the  northeast,  denoting  that  the 
prevailing  wind  is  from  the  southwest ;  in  another  section  the  trees 
may  bend  toward  the  southeast  or  some  other  direction.  In  each  case 
the  trees  show  that  the  strong  prevailing  winds  from  the  opposite 
direction  have  caused  them  to  bend  their  trunks  and  heads.  The 
result  of  this  bending  is  crooked  trees.  In  a  great  many  instances, 
apple  trees  in  these  orchards  would  have  grown  straight  if  the  proper 
windbreak  had  been  planted  at  the  time  of  "  setting  "  the  orchard. 


WINDBREAKS  45 

7.  During  the  blossoming  period  unobstructed  high  winds 
often  do  considerable  damage  to  the  proper  pollination  of  the 
blossom,  first,  by  blowing  away  a  large  amount  of  the  pollen,  and, 
second,  by  bringing  about  a  condition  which  is  not  favorable  for 
insect  work.  Without  proper  pollination,  there  is  lack  of  fruit 
setting.  A  good  windbreak  would  check  the  high  wind  enough 
so  that  insect  life  would  be  very  active  in  helping  to  carry  pollen. 
At  the  same  time,  there  might  be  just  enough  wind  allowed  to 
pass  through  the  windbreak  to  aid  greatly  in  the  spread  of  this 


-  Fig.  12.    Effects  of  wind  on  old  trees 
Windbreaks  properly  placed  would  have  prevented  this.  (Courtesy  of  M.  C.  Burritt) 

pollen  from  blossom  to  blossom.  The  result  would  be  that  with 
this  improved  condition  there  might  be  more  certainty  of  a  full 
setting  of  fruit  upon  the  trees. 

8.  The  pruning  of  apple  trees  in  the  late  winter  or  early  spring, 
especially  if  performed  on  windy  days  and  in  exposed  places,  is 
often  dangerous  for  the  primer  and  harmful  to  the  trees.  Fre- 
quently the  high  winds  make  it  impossible  to  work  among  the 
trees  during  these  periods. 

Harvesting  is  also  made  very  difficult  in  its  season  if  the  trees 
are  exposed  to  the  full  sweep  of  the  wind.  Few  pickers  can  work 
advantageously  on  a  swaying  ladder  or  among  branches  that  are 


46  THE  APPLE 

constantly  moving.  Spraying,  too,  is  almost  impossible  on  windy 
days,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  at  such  times  in  some  un- 
protected orchards  this  kind  of  work  is  not  effort  and  money 
wasted. 

Still  other  operations  in  the  orchard  are  greatly  hampered  by 
free,  unobstructed  winds,  but  many  of  the  difficulties  may  be 
overcome  if  some  attention  is  given  to  the  establishment  of 
windbreaks. 

9.  Since  few,  if  any,  birds  like  to  build  their  homes  in  windy, 
unprotected  places,  it  has  been  found  that  the  planting  of  wind- 
breaks near  orchards  increases  the  number  of  birds  inhabiting 
the  trees.  With  the  increase  in  birds  a  decrease  in  insect  injury 
to  the  trees  is  generally  apparent. 

10.  It  is  not  necessary  to  make  the  windbreak  an  unsightly,  dis- 
reputable affair.  Common  sense  in  the  selection  of  trees  for  plant- 
ing and  a  careful  arrangement  of  them  will  result  in  making  the 
windbreak  an  addition  to  the  farm  and  home  that  will  increase 
their  attractiveness  and  desirability. 

Disadvantages.  Most  of  the  disadvantages  of  windbreaks  result 
either  from  a  lack  of  attention  to  details  or  from  a  limited  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject.  It  may  be  possible  in  the  future  to  bring 
about  a  more  general  knowledge  of  windbreaks  by  the  spread  of 
literature  and  by  object  lessons  in  many  orchards  throughout  the 
country.    The  following  points  need  special  mention  : 

1.  Trees  which  act  as  a  wind  stop  instead  of  as  a  windbreak 
often  prove  injurious  by  preventing  the  free  circulation  of  air,  thus 
rendering  the  orchard  colder.  Sometimes  the  density  of  a  wind- 
break will  cause  the  same  trouble,  but  this  can  easily  be  prevented 
by  planting  fewer  trees  and  these  of  a  more  open  character,  and 
can  be  remedied  by  chopping  down  some  of  the  trees  already 
planted. 

2.  If  the  windbreak  has  been  planted  directly  across  a  slope,  it 
may  check  the  drainage  of  cold  air,  which  is  naturally  downhill, 
and  thus  cause  some  injury  to  the  trees  through  frosts.  Harm 
from  frosts  is  particularly  liable  to  occur  during  the  fall  or  the 
early  spring  period.  Generally,  such  injury  is  local  and  is  confined 
to  the  area  nearest  the  windbreak,  where  the  cold  air  collects  and 
reduces  the  temperature. 


WINDBREAKS  47 

This  question  of  proper  location  of  windbreaks  or  proper  outlets 
for  cold  air  is  one  whose  remedy  is  at  once  apparent. 

3.  Since  the  trees  in  a  windbreak  require  sunlight,  water,  food, 
etc.  to  maintain  life,  it  is  evident  that  these  substances  must  be 
found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  windbreak.  Therefore,  if  apple 
trees  are  planted  too  close  to  the  windbreak,  they  must  compete 
with  the  latter  for  the  essential  life  elements.  All  observations 
and  records  have  shown  that  apple  trees  planted  close  to  a  wind- 
break are  not  so  thrifty  as  those  planted  at  some  distance.  These 
less  thrifty  trees  produce  apples  which  are  smaller  and  lacking  in 
color,  and  therefore  less  desirable  as  to  quality. 

4.  Under  Advantages,  birds  were  said  to  increase  when  more 
sheltered  conditions  obtained.  It  is  found  that  insects  and  diseases 
also  increase  under  the  calmer  orchard  conditions.  Many  of  the 
insects  are  beneficial,  but  the  ravages  of  the  destructive  insects  and 
diseases  are  sufficiently  great  to  prove  a  menace.  The  injury 
done  by  insects  and  diseases  is  more  marked  near  the  wind- 
break. Modern  methods  of  spraying,  however,  tend  to  control 
these  pests,  and  where  the  orchard  is  carried  on  as  a  business 
proposition,  very  little  if  any  inconvenience  from  them  need  be 
experienced. 

Where  to  plant  the  windbreak.  The  best  position  for  the  wind- 
break in  relation  to  an  apple  orchard  is  on  the  side  toward  the 
prevailing  winds.  It  is  the  west  and  the  north  winds  that  are  the 
most  injurious,  especially  in  sections  near  the  ocean  or  large  lakes 
and  on  the  prairies. 

When  planning  the  windbreak  some  attention  should  be  given 
to  air  drainage.  Cold  air  flowing  downhill  must  not  be  obstructed, 
and  where  two  lines  of  windbreak  trees  meet,  care  should  be  taken 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  pockets  in  which  cold  air  may  settle. 
If  attention  to  air  drainage  is  not  given,  injuries  from  frost  may 
result.  Where  the  orchard  is  very  large  it  may  be  advisable  to 
plant  several  lines  of  windbreak  trees  at  the  distance  apart  that 
will  give  the  best  protection.  As  already  pointed  out,  it  is  gener- 
ally conceded  best  not  to  plant  the  windbreak  too  close  to  the 
orchard,  because  of  the  danger  of  injuring  the  nearest  trees. 
About  300  feet  from  the  first  row  of  apple  trees  seems  to  be 
the  proper  distance. 


48  THE  APPLE 

The  trees  —  how  to  plant.  In  California  and  other  extreme 
Western  states  it  has  been  found  that  species  of  the  following 
trees  are  the  ones  to  be  especially  recommended  for  windbreak 
purposes  : 

Eucalyptus  Monterey  pine 

Schinus  Locust 

Monterey  cypress  Maple 

In  some  sections  of  these  states  the  larger-growing  deciduous 
fruit  trees,  such  as  the  following,  have  been  used  with  good 
results  : 

Fig  Chestnut 

Apricot  (seedling)  Walnut 

Almond  (seedling) 

In  the  prairie,  or  plain,  region  other  trees  seem  to  be  more 
desirable  than  those  used  farther  west.  The  cottonwood,  the  Nor- 
way poplar,  and  the  Carolina  poplar  are  often  used  where  quick 
growth  is  required.  However,  these  trees,  because  of  their  open 
growth,  are  short-lived  when  planted  thickly,  and  of  but  little  value 
if  planted  otherwise.  Certain  strains  of  the  balm  of  Gilead  are 
more  satisfactory,  as  they  are  not  only  quick  growers  but  more 
dense  as  to  limbs  and  foliage. 

The  box  elder  is  very  hardy  and  makes  a  dense,  heavy  growth. 
It  is  a  rapid-growing  tree  while  young,  but  is  short-lived  and 
therefore  generally  used  with  the  elm  or  the  ash. 

The  silver,  or  soft,  maple  makes  a  rapid,  heavy  growth,  and  its 
lower  branches  keep  vigorous  and  healthy.  With  a  favorable 
environment  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  soil  moisture,  it  attains 
good  size  and  long  life. 

The  oleaster,  or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  known,  the  Russian 
wild  olive,  is  particularly  valuable  on  poor,  dry  soils  or  on  alkaline 
soil.  It  is,  however,  comparatively  short-lived,  especially  the  top, 
and  never  grows  to  very  large  size.  Its  value  lies  in  its  adaptability 
to  difficult  locations  and  in  its  thorny  character,  which  makes  it 
a  good  stock  fence  or  hedge. 

The  green  ash  has  a  dense,  heavy  top,  attains  fair  size,  and 
is  somewhat  cosmopolitan  as  to  soils,  thus  making  it  desirable  for 
combination  with  other  trees. 


WINDBREAKS  49 

The  American,  or  white,  elm  will  give  permanence,  height, 
stability,  and  beauty  to  any  windbreak.  It  is  therefore  a  very 
valuable  tree  for  this  purpose. 

The  best  single  deciduous  tree  for  a  shelter  belt,  according  to 
the  general  opinion,  is  the  common  gray  or  white  willow.  In 
twenty  years  it  will  attain  a  very  dense  growth  and  a  height  of 
from  40  to  50  feet.  It  is  easily  and  cheaply  started  from  cuttings, 
and  will  do  well  on  all  soils  except  the  very  dry  or  alkaline. 

Of  the  evergreens,  Norway  spruce,  which  is  hardy  and  needs 
protection  only  when  young,  is  decidedly  the  best,  although  not 
yet  very  generally  planted  in  the  plain  region.  Box  elders  may  be 
set  out  among  the  spruces  to  protect  the  young  plants  from  the  sun. 
Being  more  effective  in  a  single  row  than  three  or  more  rows  of 
deciduous  trees,  the  Norway  spruce  has  become  the  most  popular 
windbreak  tree  wherever  it  has  been  tried. 

The  Western  yellow,  or  bull,  pine,  which  makes  a  dense,  heavy 
growth,  is  becoming  recognized  as  a  valuable  shelter  tree.  It  grows 
readily  under  adverse  conditions,  such  as  very  dry  soil  and  extreme 
temperature  changes. 

The  jack  pine,  a  native  of  the  plain  region,  is  a  rapid-growing 
tree  when  young,  quite  cosmopolitan  as  to  soil,  but  especially 
valuable  on  sandy  soil,  and  perfectly  hardy. 

For  certain  purposes  the  windbreak  may  take  the  form  of  a  high 
or  a  low  hedge.  One  of  the  best  hedge  plants  is  the  buckthorn, 
another  is  the  oleaster.  Either  of  these  will  make  a  desirable  low 
windbreak  or  stock  fence. 

In  starting  a  hedge,  the  land  must  be  carefully  prepared  the 
season  before  by  breaking  up  a  strip  about  8  feet  wide.  In  the 
spring  plants  from  12  to  18  inches  high  should  be  set  a  foot  apart 
in  the  middle  of  the  cultivated  strip.  The  land  should  be  cultivated 
or  mulched  for  two  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  plants  may 
be  cut  back  to  between  2  and  6  inches  of  the  ground.  They  will 
then  form  a  dense,  bushy  hedge  that  can  be  readily  trimmed  into 
any  shape.  The  hedge  may  be  kept  always  fresh  and  vigorous  by 
the  removal  of  the  older  canes.  It  will  thrive  better  if  not  allowed 
to  grow  too  wide  at  the  top. 

It  is  often  stated  that  "  a  single  tree  or  row  of  trees  planted  on 
the  open  prairie  cannot  succeed  so  well  as  a  mass  of  trees."    This 


5o 


THE  APPLE 


is  true  of  all  trees  suited  to  grove  or  windbreak  purposes.  Trees 
growing  in  a  mass  protect  each  other  and  furnish  the  shade  that 
keeps  the  soil  mellow  and  moist,  at  the  same  time  preventing  the 
orowth  of  grass  and  weeds.  The  broader  the  belt  of  trees  the  better 
are  the  results.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  shelter  belt  is  made  more 
than  about  2  rods  wide,  it  will  be  necessary  to  plant  a  single  row 
of  willows  4  or  5  rods  to  the  north  to  prevent  the  snow  from  piling 
in  and  breaking  down  the  trees  that  are  a  part  of  the  windbreak. 

In  certain  sections  of  the  South  it  is  a  common  practice  to  leave 
some  of  the  original  forest  to  serve  as  a  windbreak.  Where  the 
belt  is  from  2  to  4  rods  wide  and  thick  from  the  ground  up,  this 
protection  is  satisfactory. 

In  the  North  and  East  where  windbreaks  have  been  planted, 
it  has  been  found  that  the  Norway  spruce  is  the  most  satisfactory 
tree.  Sometimes  a  mixed  shelter  belt  of  maples  and  Norway  spruce 
is  used.  This  mixing  is  advantageous,  since  trees  like  the  spruce 
may  become  ragged  if  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  wind,  and 
the  maples  serve  as  an  effective  break. 

Other  trees  which  may  be  recommended  for  the  northeastern 
sections  are  the  Austrian,  Scotch,  and  white  pines,  the  Lombardy 
poplar,  and  native  deciduous  trees. 

In  summarizing  the  suggestions  for  selecting  trees  for  windbreaks 
we  need  only  say  :  ( 1 )  use  the  trees  that  are  most  common  in  your 
particular  locality,  especially  if  these  trees  are  healthy  and  thrifty ; 
(2)  take  care  that  the  trees  selected  are  not  preyed  upon  by  insects 
and  diseases  common  to  the  apple  tree  ;  (3)  plant  the  windbreak  in 
belts,  with  the  trees  in  single  rows  or  mixed,  according  to  the  density 
desired  and  the  amount  of  protection  necessary  to  break  the  force 
of  the  winds  prevailing  in  your  locality. 

When  to  use  windbreaks.  No  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid 
down  as  to  when  to  use  shelter  belts.  All  exposed  orchards  would 
be  benefited  by  a  properly  built  windbreak.  Each  orchardist  must 
decide  whether  his  location  requires  such  a  protection.  In  general, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  site  having  a  western,  southern,  or  northern 
exposure  would  be  helped  by  a  natural  forest  or  an  artificial  shelter 
belt  on  the  side  toward  the  prevailing  cold  winds. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  USE  OF  STABLE  MANURE  IN  THE  ORCHARD 

Before  planting  the  orchard.  After  the  location  of  the  orchard 
has  been  selected  and  before  the  trees  have  been  set  out,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  treat  the  land  for  a  few  years  by  a  systematic  cropping  and 
manuring  plan.  The  advantages  of  such  a  plan  will  be  apparent  in 
the  improved  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  which  in  turn  will  have 
a  marked  influence  for  good  on  the  growth  of  the  orchard  during 
its  early  life. 

If  manure  is  available,  it  would  be  well  to  apply  to  the  soil  from 
i  o  to  40  tons  per  acre  each  year  for  two  years  or  more  previous  to 
the  planting  of  the  trees.  If  the  land  selected  is  in  sod,  the  manure 
may  be  spread  broadcast  upon  this  growth  either  during  the  winter 
or  early  in  the  spring,  whichever  time  is  more  convenient.  Plowing 
and  fitting  are  then  in  order  as  soon  as  practicable  in  the  spring. 
Some  hoed  crop,  such  as  corn  or  potatoes,  should  be  used  the  first 
year,  and  the  second  year  a  different  crop,  such  as  squash,  beans, 
etc.,  can  be  substituted. 

In  the  spring  of  the  third  year,  after  a  heavy  application  of 
manure  has  been  spread  broadcast,  the  trees  may  be  set.  There 
is  no  good  reason  why  some  other  crop  or  one  of  those  already 
mentioned  should  not  be  planted  at  the  same  time. 

Use  of  manure  after  the  trees  have  been  planted.  Generally 
speaking,  after  the  trees  have  been  planted  it  is  not  advisable  to 
use  manure  each  year,  especially  during  the  early  development  of 
the  trees.  It  has  been  found  that  when  heavy  applications  of  manure 
are  made  yearly  for  the  first  ten  or  twelve  years,  there  is  an  over- 
stimulation of  wood  growth  throughout  the  growing  season  and 
continuing  into  the  fall.  This  is  very  injurious  to  the  trees,  for  the 
young  wood  is  in  too  immature,  tender  a  condition  to  withstand 
severe  cold,  and  the  result  is  often  the  winter  killing  of  the  tender 
shoots  and  sometimes  the  destruction  of  the  whole  tree.    If  manure 


52  THE  APPLE 

is  used  not  oftener  than  once  in  three,  four,  or  five  years  during 
the  first  twelve  or  fifteen  years  of  the  tree's  life,  better  results  will, 
as  a  rule,  be  obtained. 

After  trees  have  passed  twenty  years  of  life  in  an  orchard,  there 
seems  to  be  greater  need  of  the  stimulating  effects  of  the  nitrogen 
contained  in  manure.  Very  old  trees  and  trees  that  have  been 
neglected  seem  to  respond  quickly  to  the  invigorating  effect  of 
plenty  of  manure  plowed  under.  Many  horticulturists  therefore 
strongly  recommend  that  one  of  the  first  steps  in  the  renovation 
of  neglected  apple  trees  should  be  the  plowing  under  of  from 
i o  to  40  tons  per  acre  of  stable  manure. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PREPARING  LAND   FOR  AN  ORCHARD 

Plowing.  If  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  the  spring,  it  may  be  of 
some  advantage  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall,  for  the  fall-plowed 
soil  dries  out  more  quickly,  thereby  advancing  the  season  of 
harrowing,  and  thus  making  it  possible  to  commence  the  spring 
planting  earlier.  When  it  is  realized  that  the  growth  of  the  apple 
tree  may  begin  earlier  in  the  spring  than  is  usually  supposed,  and 
that  during  July  the  normal  season  for  the  maturity  of  wood  begins, 
it  will  readily  be  seen  that  fall  plowing  and  early  fitting  of  the  soil 
help  the  trees  in  their  first  year  of  permanency  to  become  more 
fully  developed  during  their  natural  season  of  growth.  Spring 
plowing,  on  the  other  hand,  offers  the  great  advantage  of  allowing 
a  cover  crop  to  be  grown  on  the  land  during  the  winter,  thereby 
checking  the  great  loss  by  erosion.  This  crop  is  plowed  under  in 
the  spring,  and  is  beneficial  in  several  ways,  especially  in  improving 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 

There  are  many  plows  offered  for  sale  from  which  the  orchardist 
may  select  one  or  more  that  will  meet  the  requirements  of  his 
particular  case.  Many  men  prefer  the  common  landside  plow  with 
a  long  point  and  rather  sharp  moldboard.  A  plow  of  this  type 
turns  the  soil  in  good  style,  laying  each  furrow  slice  upon  the  edge 
of  the  preceding  furrow,  and  has  a  tendency  to  break  up  somewhat 
the  furrow  as  turned.  Some  prefer  a  plow  similar  to  this,  but  with 
a  shorter  point  and  a  less  abrupt  moldboard. 

Where  the  orchard  site  is  a  hillside  the  plow  often  selected  is 
the  walking  hillside,  or  swivel,  plow.  This  is  made  with  a  mold- 
board  and  point  that  can  be  swung  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  either 
a  left-hand  or  a  right-hand  plow.  This  permits  plowing  back  and 
forth  across  the  land,  furrow  after  furrow  in  order,  with  all  the 
furrows  turned  the  same  way. 

The  riding  reversible  sulky  plow  offers  the  same  advantages  as 
the  walking  hillside  plow,  at  the  same  time  permitting  the  operator 


54  THE  APPLE 

to  ride.  Either  plow  may  be  used  on  level  land,  but  the  hillside 
plow  does  not  do  very  satisfactory  work  on  the  more  level  stretches. 

Both  the  riding  and  the  walking  sulky  plows,  either  single  or  in 
gangs,  offer  advantages  for  quick,  thorough  work,  and  are  used 
by  many  orchardists  who  have  comparatively  level  sites. 

Another  plow,  or  system  of  plowing,  that  is  receiving  much 
attention  at  present  is  the  gang  of  four,  six,  or  more  plows  drawn 
by  a  tractor.  This  method  is  bound  to  increase  in  popularity, 
especially  in  sections  where  the  plowing  is  more  or  less  level  and 


Fig.  13.    The  modern  plowing  outfit 
Tractor  at  work  preparing  land  for  a  young  orchard 

easy  and  where  large  orchards  are  to  be  established.  The  chief 
advantages  of  this  strictly  modern  method  of  plowing  seem  to  be 
that  the  work  can  be  completed  more  quickly,  that  the  cost  per 
acre  is  less,  that  the  work  can  be  done  better  because  of  the  uni- 
formity of  furrow  turning,  and  that  the  working  day  can  be  longer. 
The  principal  disadvantages  are  that  the  outfit  is  expensive,  and 
that  it  is  not  always  in  working  order.  The  first  difficulty  may  be 
overcome  by  organization  or  community  buying.  The  second  will 
be  lessened  as  time  passes,  by  improvements  in  the  machines. 

How  to  plow.    With  plows  such  as  the  landside  and  the  gang, 
one  method  of  plowing  is  to  proceed  around  the  plot  of  ground, 


PREPARING  LAND  FOR  AN  ORCHARD  55 

turning  the  furrows  out  and  leaving  a  dead  furrow  in  the  center  of 
the  plowed  area.  Another  method,  which  is  employed  many  times 
with  the  larger  gang  plows  like  the  tractor,  is  to  proceed  across  the 
field,  turning  the  furrows  to  the  right,  make  a  long  turn  at  the 
end  of  the  field  without  plowing,  and  then  plow  back  across 
the  field.  This  will  leave  several  dead  furrows,  as  well  as  some 
"  backf urrows, "  which  are  formed  by  the  furrows  plowed  against 
each  other. 

With  the  landside  plows  —  either  the  single  or  the  small  gang  — 
the  land  may  be  laid  off  into  long  strips  and  backfurrowing  begun 
at  once.  The  backfurrowing  consists  in  plowing  a  furrow  across 
the  field,  with  equal  unplowed  space  from  2  to  4  rods  wide  on  each 
side.  The  second  furrow  is  made  by  plowing  back  against  the  first, 
thereby  turning  up  more  or  less  of  a  ridge.  Another  furrow  is 
then  made  back  of  the  first,  followed  by  one  backing  up  the  second, 
and  so  on  until  the  strip  is  plowed. 

When  all  the  strips  are  finished,  the  headlands,  or  ends  of 
furrows,  should  be  plowed  by  beginning  at  one  corner  and  going 
across  the  ends  of  the  former  furrows,  throwing  the  furrow  slice 
toward  the  plowed  ground.  If  desired,  this  finishing  may  be  done 
while  plowing  the  backfurrow  strips. 

With  the  reversible  plows  the  work  is  generally  commenced  on 
one  side  and  the  furrows  all  turned  in  the  same  direction,  leaving 
but  one  dead  furrow  at  the  end.  However,  these  plows  may  also 
be  used  in  following  the  plan  just  described. 

Good  plowing  consists  in  making  the  furrows  uniform,  whether 
flat  or  on  edge,  and  in  all  cases  the  efficiency  of  the  work  is 
increased  by  straight  furrows. 

Rolling.  Before  harrowing  the  land  it  is  sometimes  advantageous 
to  roll  the  furrows,  especially  when  a  sod  or  a  cover  crop  has  just 
been  plowed  under.  Rolling  aids  in  firming  the  soil,  thereby  increas- 
ing the  chance  of  capillarity ;  at  the  same  time  it  has  a  tendency 
to  fine  somewhat  the  larger  lumps  of  soil  and  the  furrow  slices. 

After  the  soil  has  been  plowed,  rolled,  and  harrowed,  it  is 
rolled  and  harrowed  again.  A  finer-prepared  field  results  from 
this  treatment. 

A  planker  is  often  substituted  for  the  roller,  the  claim  being  that 
the  former  is  more  of  a  grinding  tool  than  the  latter  and  does 


56  THE  APPLE 

practically  the  same  work.  Many  prefer  it  because  of  its  low  cost 
as  well  as  its  greater  grinding  qualities.  Both  are  good  tools  if 
properly  used,  the  planker  being  more  highly  recommended  for 
the  average  operator,  because  the  injuries  to  the  soil,  if  not  judi- 
ciously used,  are  not  so  great  as  in  the  case  of  the  roller. 

Harrowing.  After  spring  plowing  is  well  along  or  finished,  har- 
rowing may  begin.  If  fall  plowing  has  been  practiced,  harrowing 
should  begin  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  condition  of  the  soil  will 
permit.   Early  harrowing  results  in  earlier  conservation  of  moisture. 


FlG.  14.    A  modern  implement 
Up-to-date  soil-working  both  before  and  after  the  orchard  is  planted 

Where  the  soil  is  plowed  sod,  clayey,  lumpy,  or  hard,  the  disk 
harrow  will  give  the  greatest  satisfaction.  On  soil  which  has  little 
or  none  of  these  qualities  the  spring-tooth  harrow  is  recommended. 
This  harrow  is  particularly  valuable  on  land  that  is  stony,  especially 
when  the  stones  are  large.  As  a  still  finer  working  tool  the  spike- 
tooth  harrow,  the  old  A-harrow,  or  the  old  square  harrow  may  be 
used.  In  some  cases,  on  soil  fairly  free  from  stones,  the  Acme 
harrow  is  useful,  particularly  when  a  level,  very  fine  surface  is 
desired.  Other  tools  more  common  in  certain  sections  of  the 
country  may  be  used  with  good  results. 


PREPARING  LAND  FOR  AN  ORCHARD       57 

Use  of  fining  tools.  It  is  generally  advisable  to  use  first  either 
the  plain  or  the  cutaway  disk  harrow  the  way  the  furrows  have 
been  plowed,  lapping  half  the  width  of  the  machine  on  each  round. 
After  the  field  has  been  harrowed  in  this  manner,  it  should  be 
cross-harrowed,  also  lapping  half  the  width  of  the  machine.  If  the 
field  is  not  fitted  to  suit  the  orchardist,  disk  harrowing  diagonally 
across  the  field  in  one  or  two  directions,  lapping  half  the  width  of 
the  machine,  may  be  practiced. 

Following  the  disk  harrow,  the  spike-tooth  harrow  may  be  used 
in  a  like  manner  until  the  soil  is  fitted  to  suit  the  individual.  If 
very  fine  work  is  essential  the  Acme  harrow  may  follow  the 
spike-tooth. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  plow,  each  individual  should  select  the 
harrow  best  adapted  to  his  location  and  soil.  Good  tools,  worked 
properly,  give  satisfaction. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

LAYING  OUT  AN  ORCHARD 

Within  the  last  few  years  many  plans  for  laying  out  orchards 
have  been  suggested.  There  are  advocates  of  the  "  Wellhouse  plan," 
the  "  Olden  plan,"  the  "  Parker  Earle  plan,"  and  the  like,  each 
of  which  offers  many  advantages  for  particular  locations.  The  size 
of  the  orchard  to  be  laid  out  and  the  contour  of  the  land  will  largely 
determine  the  choice  of  plan. 

Large  orchards.  For  the  laying  out  of  a  large  orchard  on  land 
that  is  quite  level,  some  helpful  suggestions  are  to  be  found  in 
the  methods  described  by  Van  Deman  !  and  Yeomans,2  two  well- 
known  New  York  fruit  men.  A  brief  summary  of  these  similar 
methods  follows. 

A  base  line  is  laid  out  along  the  side  of  the  field,  generally  on 
the  straightest  side,  such  as  that  bounded  by  a  road,  a  wire  fence,  a 
stone  wall,  or  the  like.  Stakes  are  set  at  both  extremities  of  this 
line,  and  a  perpendicular  to  it  is  erected  at  one  end.  The  erection 
of  this  perpendicular  may  be  accomplished  by  means  of  a  common 
carpenter's  square,  sighting  along  both  limbs  and  having  one  limb 
coincide  with  the  base  line.  A  right  angle  may  also  be  established 
by  the  surveyor's  method,  as  follows  :  Measure  30  feet  along  the 
base  line  and  set  a  stake,  A  ;  then  with  a  distance  of  40  feet  on 
the  tape  line  and  A,  or  the  extremity  of  the  base  line,  as  a  center, 
mark  off  a  segment  of  an  arc  in  the  direction  which  the  perpen- 
dicular will  take,  as  B ;  and  with  A  as  a  pivotal  point  and  a  dis- 
tance of  50  feet  on  the  tape  line,  mark  off  another  segment  of  the 
circle  at  B,  cutting  the  previously  made  segment.  Set  a  stake  at 
the  intersection  of  the  two  segments.  The  perpendicular  can  be 
established  by  sighting  over  this  newly  placed  stake  from  the  origi- 
nal stake  at  the  end  of  the  base  line.    Next,  measure  off  on  both 

1  II.  E.  Van  Deman,  orchardist,  Rochester,  New  York. 

2  T.  G.  Yeomans,  orchardist,  Walworth,  New  York. 

53 


LAYING  OUT  AN  ORCHARD  59 

the  base  line  and  the  perpendicular  the  distances  the  first  tree  is  to 
stand  from  these  two  lines,  and  set  stakes.  Then  measure  from 
these  stakes  distances  equal  to  the  distance  which  the  trees  are  to 
stand  apart,  25,  30,  40,  or  50  feet,  whatever  the  case  may  require. 
In  a  like  manner  set  stakes  on  the  other  two  sides  of  the  field 
and  in  both  directions  across  the  field  about  halfway  between  the 

E  N  F 

X  x  x 


1   o 

X 

o 


S!     O 


\% 


Fig.  15.    Method  of  staking  an  orchard 
In  a  rectangular  field  this  method  is  applicable 

opposite  sides.  By  this  means  several  series  of  three  stakes  will  be 
set  in  the  field,  the  intersections  of  the  lines  of  which  will  mark 
the  position  of  all  the  trees  in  the  field.  The  Garden  Magazine 
has  published  an  excellent  article  1  by  Mr.  H.  M.  Martin,  of  New 
York,  which  would  be  of  equal  interest  to  the  large  and  the 
small  orchardist. 

1  Copyright  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company. 


6o 


THE  APPLE 


■9 


4 


-&" 


Fig.  i  6.    The  hexagonal  system 

Trees  arranged  equidistantly  in  all  directions, 

forming  a  series  of  equilateral  triangles,  or  a 

hexagon,  with  a  tree  in  the  center 


GETTING  THE  MOST  IN  AN 
ORCHARD 

Note.  A  majority  of  orchards  are 
planted  on  a  plan  that  is  most  waste- 
ful of  space,  nearly  one  fourth  of  the 
land  being  unproductive.  The  vari- 
ous ways  are  analyzed  on  the  basis 
of  an  acre. 

It  is  manifestly  necessary,  in 
order  to  get  the  fullest  returns  from 
an  orchard,  to  have  every  inch  of 
available  space  occupied  to  the  best 
advantage  during  the  early  years  of 
the  tree's  growth  and  plenty  of 
room  left  for  the  complete  develop- 
ment of  the  mature  tree,  yet  it  is  a 
fact  that  one  quarter  of  the  space 
is  actually  wasted  in  the  great  major- 
ity of  orchards.  Full-grown  apple 
trees  should  be  at  least  40  feet  apart 
for  such  varieties  as  the  Mcintosh 
and  Hubbardston,  45  feet  for  the  Baldwin,  Greening,  etc.,  and  in  many  cases 
50  feet  is  not  too  great.  Yet  one  cannot  afford  to  plant  trees  so  far  apart  and 
wait  for  them  to  come  to  full 

bearing ;    he  must  occupy  the        Qk  £j*  p 

space  between  the  permanent  „-'     ^  ^'" 

trees     with     secondary    crops.  ^  °^^^  y"°'       /v 

The  best  way  is  to  plant  shorter-         ^  ^  ^c'  * 

lived  fruit  trees  as  fillers,  which  X.^  ^S        v^ 

must  be  cut  out  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  crowd  the  others.  It 
takes  courage  to  cut  out  thrifty 
bearing  trees,  but  it  must  be 
done. 

Before  the  orchard  is  set,  a 
planting  plan  should  be  care- 
fully made,  showing  the  posi- 
tion of  each  tree.  There  are 
three  main  systems  of  planting : 
the  square  (or  rectangular),  the 
quincunx,  and  the  hexagonal. 
An  orchard  laid  out  according 
to  the  square  system  would  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  squares  with 
a  tree  at  each   corner  of  the 


4> 


Q- 


4 


Q> 


F10. 


17.    The  hexagonal  system 

Orchard  thinned  by  cutting  alternate  rows  diago- 
nally, according  to  dotted  lines 


LAYING  OUT  AN  ORCHARD 


intersecting  squares.  This 
is  the  most  common 
method,  but  it  is  the 
most  wasteful  with  ref- 
erence to  use  of  land. 
A  tree,  if  unhindered 
in  its  growth,  may  be  ex- 
pected to  develop  equally 
in  all  directions  and  may 
be  represented  by  a  cir- 
cle. Figure  21  shows 
how  these  circles  touch 
each  other  when  the 
trees  are  full  grown.  The 
shaded  space  is  unoccu- 
pied, but  amounts  to  al- 
most 23  per  cent  of  the 
area. 

Because  of  this  large 
amount  of  waste  in  the 
square  system  of  planting, 
a  tree  was  put  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  square,  form- 
ing the  quincunx  group. 
In  this  way  about  double 
the  number  of  trees  per 
acre  may  be  set  out.  But 
they  cannot  all  reach  their 
full  growth.  The  con- 
tinuous circles  intersect, 
showing  how  the  center 
tree  interferes  with  the 
growth  of  the  trees  at  the 
corners  of  the  squares. 
It  is  better  to  remove 
the  center  tree  before  it 
reaches  this  stage  of  de- 
velopment. The  dotted 
circles  show  the  amount 
of  development  each  tree 
reaches  before  it  is  inter- 
fered with  by  its  neigh- 
bors. The  orchard  may 
be  considered,  therefore, 
as  a  system  of  squares 
running  diagonally  across 


Fig.  18.  Area  of  occupancy,  and  waste  space  in  the 

hexagonal  system 

Trees  have  an  equal  exposure  to  light  and  air,  with  only 

10  per  cent  of  area  unoccupied.     Fifteen  per  cent  more 

trees  per  acre  may  be  planted  than  by  the  square  system 

at  the  same  distance  apart 

9  q  q> 

9  9  9  <? 

9  q  9 

<*  9  Q>  9 

9  <9  9 

9  <*  9  q> 

9  9  9 

Q  9  Q>  9 

9  9  9 

9  4  9  <Q> 

q>  q>  9 

Q  9  Q>  9 

Fig.  19.   The  hexagonal  system 
Orchard  planted  with  permanent  trees  and  one  set  ot  fillers 


A-3'-  4- 

-/o'-io-x—io-id- x— 


Permanent  trees 


Apple  fillers 


f      J     Peach  fillers 
Q        "  Extra  "  peach  fillers 
#        Small  fruits  (raspberries,  etc.) 


Fig.  20.    Hexagonal  system 

Diagram  of  intensive  use  of  fillers;   320  trees  per  acre  or  160  trees  and  550  bush  fruits 
(berries  or  grapes) 


62 


LAYING  OUT  AN  ORCHARD 


63 


Fig.  21.  Diagram  of  square  system 
Showing  area  occupied  by  trees,  and  waste  space. 
The  large  circles  show  the  limit  of  growth  of  the  trees ; 
the  shaded  portion  is  waste  area,  forming  23  per  cent 
of  the  total  area.  This  method  gives  unequal  exposure 
to  light  and  air 


the  field,  and  the  waste  space 
is  still,  in  reality,  23  per  cent. 
The  least  unoccupied  area 
is  attained  in  the  hexagonal 
system.  When  trees  are 
planted  in  this  way,  only  10 
per  cent  of  the  area  is  un- 
occupied, and  the  trees  are 
distributed  evenly  over  the 
field.  All  trees  are  equidistant, 
forming  a  series  of  equilateral 
triangles.  About  1 5  per  cent 
more  trees  per  acre  can  be 
planted  by  this  method  than 
by  the  square  system,  yet 
with  the  same  distance  be- 
tween trees. 

The  Use  of  Fillers 


The  use  of  early-bearing 
and  shorter-lived  trees  as 
fillers  in  an  apple  orchard  is 
strongly  recommended.  By  such  means  the  orchard  should  have  paid  for 
itself  and  yielded  a  good  /%/*?% 
income    before    the    per-       "  9  *+  Q  *J  <f  Q 

manent   trees   come   into 

bearing.     Either   peaches        ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  . 

or    early-bearing    apples, 
such  as  the  Wagener  or 

Wealthy,    may    be    used.       £J>  9  Q  q,  <J>  q>  Q 

Some    strongly    advocate 
the  use  of  dwarf  apples, 

but  others  consider   that        9  <?  9  9  <?  9  9 

they   do    not    come   into 
bearing  much  earlier  than        _ 

the     standard     varieties.       Lr  9  ^  9  ^  9  ^ 

Results  of  experiments  at 
the  New  York  State  Ex-        ^  ^ 

periment  Station,  Geneva, 
are  unfavorable  to  the  use 

of  dwarf  trees  from  this       C^  9  Q  9  Cjk  9  Q 

standpoint. 

In  setting  out  an  or- 
chard by  the  square  sys- 
tem the  permanent  trees 


Fig.  22.    Square  system 

Orchard  planted  with  permanent  trees  and  fillers 

C^J^    Permanent  trees  C&     Fillers 


64 


THE  APPLE 


\ 


Fig.  23.    Square  system 


-  first  thinning 


Cut  out  alternate  rows  diagonally  as  indicated  by  dotted 
lines.   The  trees  now  form  a  quincunx  system 


should  be  set  40  feet 
apart  for  the  Hubbard- 
ston  and  Mcintosh ;  for 
Greening  and  Baldwin 
preferably  45  or  50  feet. 
Standard  apples  of  early- 
bearing  varieties,  such  as 
the  Wealthy  or  Wagener, 
could  then  be  set  halfway 
between  the  permanent 
trees,  formiag  squares 
half  the  size,  in  which 
the  larger  trees  represent 
the  permanent  ones,  the 
smaller  the  fillers.  In 
thinning,  the  alternate 
diagonal  row  should  be 
cut  out  first.  This  leaves 
the  tree  in  the  center  of 
the  square,  which  can 
stand  some  years  longer. 
But  the  orchard  in  its 
present  condition  is  really  on  the  quincunx  plan.  The  central  tree  may  be 
removed  by  cutting  out  the  alternate  rows  at  right  angles  to  the  fence  line. 
By  setting  the  permanent  trees  45  feet  or  more  apart,  peach  fillers  could  be 
planted  on  the  corners  of 

squares  11  ft.  3  in.  apart,       Qk  Qk  C^  Cl 

dividing      the      original 
squares  into  sixteen  small 

ones,     which    could     be  000 

gradually  thinned  to  the 
stages  already  given. 

The  quincunx  system 
offers  a  better  means  of 
using  fillers.  Fig.  27  rep- 
resents the  orchard  with 
permanent  trees  in  quin- 
cunx groups,  and  two  sets 
of  fillers.  Standard  apple 
fillers  should  be  set  half- 
way between  the  per- 
manent trees,  forming 
the  corners  of  squares 
running  diagonally  across 
the  field  and  of  the  same 
size     as      the      diagonal 


Fig.  24.    Square  system  —  second  thinning 
Remove  alternate  rows  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines 


LAYING  OUT  AN  ORCHARD 


65 


squares  of  the  permanent  trees.  Peaches  should  be  set  halfway  between  the 
permanent  trees  on  the  diagonal  rows.  These  trees  would  be  the  first  to  come 
out,  and  should  be  cut  out  by  removing  the  alternate  perpendicular  rows. 
This     leaves 


CJ Cm     the  permanent     <-£_ 

trees  and  the  1  *> 


-9 


V 


4r: 


>:.<> 


Fig.  25.   The  square  system 
A  tree  at  each  corner  of  a  square 


Fig.  26.  The  quincunx  system 
A  tree  at  each  corner  of  a  square, 
with  a  fifth  tree  in  the  center  of  the 
square,  forming  the  quincunx  group 


trees  and  the 
apple  fillers. 
When  the  ap- 
ple fillers  be- 
gin to  crowd, 
cut  them  out 
by  removing 
the  alternate 
rows  diago- 
nally. 

The  great- 
est number 
of  trees  per 
acre,  and  the  most  evenly  distributed,  occur 
by  using  the  hexagonal  system.  The  only  difficulty  is  that,  in  thinning,  the 
distance  between  the  trees  is  doubled.  Fig.  19  shows  the  arrangement  of  per- 
manent trees,  and  one  set  of  fillers  planted  according  to  this  system.  Fig.  1 7 
shows  the  method  of  removing  the  fillers,  by  taking  out  the  alternate  rows 
running  diagonally  across 
the  field  in  both  directions.       ^  *  ^  *  Q  *  ^ 

Fig.  20  shows  a  method  e  $  *  9  4  9 

of  planting  320  fruit  trees        ^  £  ^  ^  ^  Q  ^ 

per  acre,  or  160  fruit  trees 

and    550    bushes   of    small  ??**?* 

fruits,  by  the  hexagonal  plan.       £J*  q>  Q  Q  Q  Q  Q 

With  such  an  intensive  sys-  . 

9  9  9  9  <?  9 

tern  of   planting,   the  per-  ^~ 

manent  trees  should  be  at*?         ^  t  S*  <?  cr  9 

least    50   feet  apart.     The  9  9  $  9  9  9 

large  dots  (solid  black)  rep-       Q         ^         Q  ^         Q  ^         q 

resent  the  permanent  apple 

trees,  set  50  feet  apart.  The  9  9  9  9  9  9 

smaller    dots   (solid    black)        Q  Q  9  Q         <?         Q  q 

represent    standard    apple  o  o  o  <» 

fillers,  set  halfway  between 
the  permanent  trees,  mak- 
ing the  apple  trees  25  feet 
apart.  The  larger  circles  (un- 
shaded) are  peach  trees,  set 
halfway  between  the  apple 
trees  in  the  perpendicular 


Fig.  27.    The  quincunx  system 
Orchard  planted  with  permanent  apple  trees,  standard 

apple  fillers,  and  peach  fillers 

CX    Permanent  trees  Cf>    Standard  apple  fillers 

9    Peach  fillers 


66 


THE  APPLE 


rows.  In  this  way,  there  are  20  permanent  trees,  60  apple  fillers,  and  80  peach 
trees  per  acre.  The  smaller  circles  (unshaded)  are  extra  peach  trees  put  half- 
way between  the  trees  already  set,  which  would  make  320  trees  per  acre.  In 
this  way  the  orchard  would  accommodate  240  peach  trees  per  acre.  But  instead 
of  the  extra  peaches,  small  fruits  may  be  planted,  as  shown  by  the  smallest  dots, 
arranged  in  three  rows  between  the  rows  of  apple  trees.  In  this  way  550  bushes 
of  small  fruits  per  acre  may  be  accommodated,  leaving  plenty  of  room  for  cul- 
tivation. They  should  be  removed  before  they  begin  to  crowd  the  trees ;  but, 
since  there  is  almost  1 1  feet  left  between  them  and  the  trees,  they  will  have 
plenty  of  time  to  bring  in  considerable  money  before  they  are  cut  out. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  permanent  trees  and  permanent 
trees  with  one  set  of  fillers,  together  with  the  distances  apart  of  permanent 
trees  and  fillers,  planted  according  to  the  three  different  systems.  The  figures 
in  parentheses  after  the  quincunx  system  show  the  distance  of  the  center  tree 
of  the  group  from  the  corner  trees  of  the  square. 

NUMBER  OF  TREES  PER  ACRE  ACCORDING  TO  THE  DIFFERENT 
SYSTEMS  OF  PLANTING 


Distance  apart 


Number  of  Trees  per  Acre 


Hexagonal 
Square  .  . 
Quincunx  . 

Hexagonal 
Square  .  . 
Quincunx   . 

Hexagonal 
Square  .  . 
Quincunx   . 

Hexagonal 
Square  .  . 
Quincunx  . 

Hexagonal 
Square  .  . 
Quincunx  . 

Hexagonal 
Square  .  . 
Quincunx   . 

Hexagonal 
Square  .  . 
Quincunx  . 


Permanent 
30  ft. 
30  ft. 
30  ft.  (21.2) 

32  ft. 
32  ft. 

32  ft.  (22.6) 

33  ft 
33  ft. 

33  ft.  (23.3) 

35  ft. 

35  ft. 

35  ^  (247) 

40  ft. 
40  ft. 
40  ft.  (28.3) 

45  ft. 
45  ft- 
45  ft-  (3i-8) 

50  ft. 
50  ft. 
50  ft  (35-4) 


Fillers 
I5ft. 
I5ft. 
I5ft. 

16  ft. 
16  ft. 
16  ft. 

1 6.5  ft. 
16.5  ft. 
16.5  ft. 

17.5  ft. 

I7.5ft. 
17.5  ft. 

20  ft. 
20  ft. 
20  ft. 

22-5  ft 
22.5  ft. 
22.5  ft 

25  ft. 
25  ft. 
25  ft. 


Permanent 

55 
48 
97 

49 
42 
S5 

46 
40 
80 

4i 

35 
70 


-5 


Permanent,  _fille 
220 
194 
194 

196 
1 68 
168 

1S4 
160 
160 

166 
140 
140 

124 

108 

108 

100 
86 
86 

80 
68 
68 


LAYING  OUT  AN  ORCHARD 


67 


The  comparative  ease  with  which  tillage,  spraying,  and  other  operations 
may  be  carried  on  in  the  orchards  planted  according  to  the  different  systems 
may  be  seen  by  the  following  table,  showing  the  distances  between  the  rows  of 
permanent  trees,  with  two  sets  of  fillers,  running  north  and  south,  east  and 
west,  and  diagonally  across  the  field. 


DISTANCES  BETWEEN  ROWS  ACCORDING  TO  SYSTEM 
OF  PLANTING 


Dis- 

tance 

OF   PeR- 

Direction 
of  Rows 

Square  System 

Quincunx  System 

Hexaconal  System 

Tkees 

Permanent 

Fillers 

Permanent 

Fillers 

Permanent 

Fillers 

j 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

45  ft. 

N.  &  S. 

45 

22.5 

II.25 

22.5 

II.25 

5.62 

39 

19.5 

9-75 

E.  &  W. 

45 

22.5 

II.25 

22.5 

II.25 

5.62 

22.5 

II.25 

5-62 

Diagonal 

31.8 

15-9 

7-95 

31.8 

'5-9 

7-95 

39 

19-5 

9-75 

40  ft. 

N.  &  S. 

40 

20 

10 

20 

10 

5 

34-6 

■7-3 

8.6 

E.  &  W. 

40 

20 

10 

20 

10 

5 

20 

,0 

S 

Diagonal 

28.3 

14. 1 

7 

28.3 

14.1 

7 

34-6 

'7-3 

8.6 

The  distances  between  the  rows  of  permanent  trees  and  fillers  for  trees  at 
50  ft.  hexagonal  system  are  given  in  Fig.  20. 

The  greatest  distances  between  the  rows  east  and  west  are  gained  in  the 
square  system,  although  the  diagonal  distance  is  less  in  this  than  in  the  hexag- 
onal. The  quincunx  system  diminishes  by  half  the  distance  between  the  rows 
of  the  square  system  running  north  and  south,  but  the  diagonal  distance  is  the 
same.  The  hexagonal  system  gives  considerably  more  room  for  orchard  opera- 
tions than  the  quincunx  system,  the  rows  running  north  and  south  being  the 
same  distance  apart,  and  about  seven  eighths  the  distance  of  the  north  and  south 
rows  of  the  square  system.  The  rows  running  east  and  west  in  the  hexagonal  sys- 
tem are  at  the  same  distance  apart  as  the  similar  rows  in  the  quincunx  system. 

Cultivating  an  orchard  diagonally  requires  considerably  more  turning  than 
carrying  on  operations  parallel  with  the  rows.  This  distance  between  rows  is 
the  greatest  in  the  quincunx  and  least  in  the  square  system  (compared  with 
the  other  directions  in  the  same  system).  In  the  hexagonal  system  the  distance 
north  and  south  and  diagonally  is  the  same,  with  the  east-and-west  distance  the 
least.  Ordinarily,  therefore,  orchard  operations  could  be  most  easily  carried  on 
north  and  south  in  the  hexagonal  system. 

If  fillers  are  used,  much  more  room  is  obtained  between  the  rows  by  planting 
according  to  the  hexagonal  system  than  according  to  the  quincunx,  as  well  as  a 
larger  number  of  trees.  If  a  very  intensive  system  of  fillers  is  used,  the  perma- 
nent trees  must  be  placed  far  enough  apart  to  permit  of  cultivation  between  the 
fillers.    It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  trees  are  placed  50  feet  apart  in  Fig.  20. 


68 


THE  APPLE 


When  the  small  fruits  are 
used  the  closest  rows  are 
6  ft.  3  in.  apart  running 
east  and  west,  3  ft.  7  in. 
apart  north  and  south,  and 
4  ft.  2  in.  diagonally. 

To  facilitate  all  orchard 
operations  a  row  should 
be  left  out  for  a  street 
at  convenient  intervals 
throughout  the  orchard. 

Summary 


Fig.  28. 


Quincunx  system  —  first  thinning 


Remove  peach  fillers,  as  shown  by  dotted  lines 


The  square  system  of 
planting  an  orchard  is  the 
most  wasteful  of  space, 
accommodating  the  small- 
est number  of  trees  per 
acre,  but  by  planting  with 
fillers  may  be  thinned  first 
to  a  quincunx  form,  and 
later  to  squares  twice  the  size  of  those  when  first  planted,  thus  allowing  a 
gradual  transition  from  close  planting  to  trees  far  apart.  It  is  perhaps  the 
easiest  of  all  systems  to 
cultivate.  Q>  ^  <>  ^  <?  ^  <? 

The    quincunx    group  \  \  \ 

allows    about    double    the  ^      \%  -^     \  _      \ 

number  of  trees  per  acre        c^  •  \  >^  vo  »^         N-° 

that    the    square    of    the  \  s\  \ 

same  size  accommodates;       q     \  £\     ^N  q      \  q 

but  these  figures  are  mis-  "\  ^  \ 

leading,   for  the  real   dis-  \  s\  \ 

tance  of  the  trees  is  shown 
by  the  figures  in  paren- 
theses in  the  table,  page  66, 
which  is  the  size  of  the 
squares  running  diagonally 
across  the  field.  Compar- 
ing the  number  of  trees  per 
acre  of  the  quincunx  sys- 
tem with  the  number  of 
trees  according  to  the  hex- 
agonal system,  using  this 
latter  figure  as  the  correct 
distance,  it  is  clearly  evident 


\ 


Fig.  29.    Quincunx  system  —  second  thinning 

Remove  apple  fillers  by  taking  out  alternate  rows  diago- 
nally, as  shown  by  dotted  lines 


LAYING  OUT  AN  ORCHARD 


69 


that  the  hexagonal  system  stands  in  the  lead.  The  great  advantage  in  the 
hexagonal  system  is  that  each  tree  has  a  chance  to  develop  equally  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  has  an  equal  exposure  to  light  and  air.  The  one  disadvantage  is 
that  there  is  no  good  system  of  thinning  fillers  gradually ;  but  the  large  num- 
ber of  trees  which  may  be  used  as  fillers  sufficiently  pays  for  the  extra  space 
caused  for  a  few  years  by  doubling  the  distance  between  trees  in  removing 
fillers.  It  is  an  especially  good  system  for  intensive  methods  of  culture  and 
can  be  easily  cultivated. 

The  location  and  site  of 
the  orchard,  the  available  cap- 
ital and  training  of  the  or- 
chardist,  as  well  as  economy 
of  space  in  planting  and  per- 
fect development  of  the  tree, 
should  be  considered  in  choos- 
ing the  planting  system.  In 
commercial  fruit  districts 
where  the  land  is  very  expen- 
sive it  will  be  of  advantage 
to  use  the  hexagonal  system, 
with  very  intensive  culture. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  prob- 
lem of  the  abandoned  farm 
with  poor  land  on  hillsides 
where  cultivation  is  difficult 
would  be  better  solved  by 
using  the  square  system. 


Fig.  30.    Area  of  occupancy  in  the  quincunx 

system 

The  central  tree  crowds  the  others,  as  shown  by  the 
intersection  of  the  large  circles.  The  dotted  circles 
show  the  degree  to  which  each  may  develop  symmetri- 
cally. This  reduces  the  plan  to  a  square  system  with 
waste  space  of  23  per  cent  and  trees  closer  together, 
allowing  twice  as  many  per  acre 


If  the  owner  of  a  pro- 
posed large  orchard  does 
not  care  to  bother  with 
the  actual  laying  out  him- 
self, surveyors  may  be  employed.  This,  in  fact,  is  the  most  practi- 
cal method  of  laying  out  large  orchards,  although  other  methods 
to  suit  individual  preferences  or  ideals  may  prove  satisfactory. 

Smaller  orchards.  When  an  orchard  is  small  it  is  generally  due 
to  lack  of  space,  although  financial  or  other  reasons  may  be  the 
cause.  Generally  speaking,  if  the  reason  is  lack  of  space  it  is 
highly  important  that  more  attention  should  be  given  to  getting  as 
many  trees  as  possible  in  the  orchard. 

Home  orchard.  In  laying  out  an  orchard  for  the  home,  stretch 
a  line,  such  as  a  wire,  across  the  piece  of  ground  from  the  corner 


yo  THE  APPLE 

where  the  first  tree  will  eventually  stand  to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
piece ;  measure  off  on  this  wire  the  number  of  feet  intended  for 
the  space  between  trees  and  solder  to  the  wire  at  this  point  a  small 
piece  of  tin  or  wire ;  measure  for  the  next  tree  in  a  like  manner, 
and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  line.  Digging  the  holes  and  planting 
may  be  accomplished  while  the  line  is  in  place.  Remove  the  line 
to  where  the  next  row  of  trees  is  to  be  set  out,  stretch  it  tight,  plant 
the  trees  immediately,  and  so  on  until  the  piece  is  all  planted. 

If  the  hexagonal  method  is  followed,  a  wire  may  be  used  with 
an  iron  ring  in  each  end  or  with  ends  twisted,  being  from  end  to 
end,  when  stretched  tight,  the  exact  length  required  between  trees. 
Place  a  stake  where  the  first  tree  will  stand ;  then  with  the  wire 
measure  from  this  stake  in  the  direction  of  the  proposed  base  line 
of  trees  ;  place  another  stake,  and  from  this  locate  the  next,  and 
so  on.  Sight  along  the  stakes,  or  stretch  a  garden  line  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  to  make  sure  that  they  are  in  a  straight  line.  Come 
back  with  the  wire  to  the  first  stake  and,  with  the  first  and  second 
stakes  as  centers,  make  intersecting  arcs,  and  place  a  stake  at  the 
point  of  intersection.  From  this  new  stake,  measure  with  the  wire 
in  the  direction  parallel  to  the  base  line  and  make  an  arc  ;  then 
with  stake  three  on  the  base  line  as  a  center,  make  an  intersect- 
ing arc  and  place  a  stake.  Carry  on  this  measuring  until  the  work 
is  finished. 

In  all  cases  look  over  your  work  and  see  that  each  stake  lines  up 
with  the  other  stakes  in  at  least  three  ways.   It  will  then  be  correct. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PLANTING 

Fall  versus  spring  planting.  There  is  much  difference  of  opinion 
among  the  authorities  on  apple  growing  as  to  the  best  season  for 
planting  apple  trees.  The  late  fall  is  advocated  by  some,  while 
others  are  equally  certain  that  the  early  spring  is  better.  The  chief 
reasons  advanced  in  favor  of  late  fall  planting  are  that  roots  of  trees 
set  at  this  season  become  thoroughly  established  in  the  soil,  and  that 
the  cut  surfaces  on  the  roots  become  calloused  during  the  winter 
months,  with  the  result  that  new  roots  are  pushed  out  very  early  in 
the  spring.    On  the  other  hand,  dry  falls  and  dry  winters  will  prove 

k 5  ft.   * 


K 


to 

__1 


Fig.  31.    A  planting  board 
A  very  useful  contrivance  in  setting  an  orchard 

fatal  to  many  of  the  fall-set  trees,  and  the  stand  will  therefore  be 
imperfect.  In  the  eastern  and  northern  part  of  the  country,  spring 
planting  is  usually  preferred. 

Trees  for  planting  should  not  be  taken  from  the  nursery  row  till 
the  leaves  have  fallen,  and  this  is  usually  so  late  in  the  fall  that  the 
weather  is  not  suitable  for  planting.  As  previously  stated,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  purchase  trees  in  the  fall,  so  as  to  obtain  a  better  assort- 
ment and  to  have  them  ready  for  planting  in  the  spring  as  soon  as 
the  weather  permits.  Then  if  soil  and  weather  conditions  are 
favorable  in  the  fall  after  the  stock  arrives,  the  trees  may  be  safely 
and  profitably  planted  where  they  are  to  remain  permanently, 
instead  of  being  heeled  in.  If  left  till  spring,  the  planting  should 
be  done  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked  without  injury.  If  the 
conditions  in  the  fall  are  not  right,  spring  planting  is  undoubtedly 
the  safer  course. 

71 


72 


THE  APPLE 


Planting  board.  The  planting  board,  a  device  made  to  assist  in 
planting  apple  trees,  is  not  so  well  known  as  it  should  be.  Its  con- 
struction is  simple  —  a  board  |  inch  thick,  5  or  6  feet  long,  and 
6  inches  wide,  with  a  V-shaped  notch  about  3  inches  deep  sawed 
into  each  end,  and  the  same  kind  of  a  notch  exactly  midway  be- 
tween the  end  notches.  A  board  of  this  kind  is  shown  in  Fig.  31, 
and  its  use  illustrated  in  Fig.  32.  In  addition  to  this  board,  two 
stakes  between  1 2  and  1 8  inches  long,  called  guide  stakes,  will  be 


Fig.  32.    Method  of  using  the  planting  board 
The  tree  will  be  located  exactly  at  the  middle  stake 

necessary.  There  are  many  modifications  of  this  type,  but  the 
principle  is  practically  the  same  in  all.  The  purpose  of  the  plant- 
ing board  is  to  locate  the  tree  after  the  digging  of  the  hole,  which 
naturally  necessitates  the  removal  of  the  stake.  To  accomplish  this 
the  board  is  placed  on  the  ground  with  the  central  notch  adjusted 
to  the  stake  that  indicates  the  proposed  position  of  a  tree.  The 
guide  stakes  are  then  driven  into  the  ground  at  the  ends  of  the 
board,  fitting  snugly  into  the  end  notches.  The  board  is  removed 
while  the  hole  is  being  dug,  and  replaced  when  the  operation  has 


PLANTING  71 

been  completed.  The  tree  is  then  set  in  such  a  position  that  its 
stem  or  trunk  passes  through  the  central  notch  corresponding  to 
the  location  of  the  stake. 

Another  device  for  locating  trees,  commonly  employed  in  the 
West,  is  a  triangle  made  by  nailing  firmly  together  three  strips, 
each  i  inch  thick,  2  inches  wide,  and  6  feet  long,  allowing  a  pro- 
jection of  3  inches  at  the  corners  of  the  triangle  thus  formed.  One 
projecting  corner  of  the  triangle  is  placed  firmly  against  the  stake 
which  marks  the  position  of  the  tree,  and  a  stake  is  driven  in  each 
of  the  other  two  corners.  The  triangle  is  removed,  the  hole  dug, 
and  the  tree  brought  into  exact  position. 

The  planting  boards  are  serviceable  not  only  in  putting  the  trees 
in  their  exact  positions  but  also  in  giving  the  planter  a  good  idea 
as  to  whether  the  trees  are  being  set  at  the  right  depth.  Without 
their  use,  trees  may  be  placed  in  the  holes  and  the  earth  filled  in 
about  them  before  it  is  discovered  that  the  holes  are  too  shallow 
or  too  deep. 

Hand  digging  and  planting.  The  work  of  planting  by  hand  may 
be  most  expeditiously  accomplished  with  four  men,  or  two  men 
and  two  smart  boys,  one  operating  the  planting  board,  another 
digging  the  holes,  a  third  bringing  the  trees  and  holding  them  in 
position,  and  the  fourth  shoveling  in  the  soil.  Boys  may  be  used 
to  operate  the  planting  board  and  to  hold  the  trees.  The  man  or 
boy  who  operates  the  planting  board,  after  adjusting  the  stakes 
for  the  first  hole,  goes  on  to  the  second,  adjusts  a  second  pair  of 
guide  stakes,  returns  with  the  board  to  the  first  hole,  where  the 
other  boy  locates  the  tree ;  he  then  pulls  up  the  guide  stakes  and 
takes  them  with  the  board  to  the  third  tree  stake.  It  may  some- 
times be  better  to  have  two  similar  planting  boards  available, 
one  for  each  boy.  While  the  first  boy  is  back  at  the  first  tree, 
the  hole  is  being  dug  for  the  second  tree,  and  by  the  time  he 
sets  the  guide  stakes  for  the  third  tree,  it  will  be  time  to  locate 
the  second. 

The  boy  who  holds  the  tree  while  it  is  being  planted  gives  it  a 
shake  with  an  up-and-down  motion,  to  scatter  the  soil  among  the 
roots.  Often  the  fingers  may  be  used  to  help  spread  the  dirt 
effectively  among  the  finer  roots.  When  half  the  soil  has  been 
shoveled  in,  the  boy  firms  it  with  his  feet.    This  first  soil  placed 


74  THE  APPLE 

around  the  roots  of  the  tree  should  be  the  topsoil,  which  the  digger 
has  placed  at  one  side  of  the  hole,  the  poor  subsoil  having  been 
thrown  on  the  other  side.  The  second  boy  then  goes  after  another 
tree,  leaving  the  man  who  does  the  filling  in  to  give  the  final 
treading  and  to  put  a  loose  layer  of  soil  on  the  surface.  The  holes 
are  dug  just  broad  enough  to  accommodate  the  roots  and  just 
deep  enough  to  allow  the  trees  to  be  planted  to  the  same  depth 
that  they  stood  in  the  nursery  row,  or  possibly  one  or  two  inches 
deeper. 

Where  there  are  few  stones  and  nothing  to  impede  the  progress 
of  the  workmen,  a  third  boy  may  be  advantageously  used  to  bring 
the  trees,  as  they  are  required,  or  to  do  some  other  part  of  the 
work.  If  two  or  three  gangs  are  working  on  different  rows,  one 
boy  may  supply  trees  to  both  gangs. 

In  planting,  care  should  be  used  not  to  expose  the  roots  to  the 
drying  effect  of  the  air.  It  is  an  excellent  plan,  although  not 
always  necessary,  to  puddle  the  roots  ;  that  is,  dip  them  in  a  thin 
mud  or  paste  of  clay.  In  this  way  they  are  protected  for  a  longer 
period  against  the  drying  effects  of  the  wind  and  sun. 

It  is  not  well  to  plant  trees  when  the  soil  is  wet,  for  handling 
it  when  in  this  condition  changes  its  physical  properties,  and  a 
baked  soil  is  the  result.  No  fertilizer  should  be  put  into  the  holes 
when  the  tree  is  planted. 

In  setting  the  trees  it  may  be  well  to  slant  them  slightly  toward 
the  direction  from  which  the  prevailing  winds  come.  One  well- 
known  orchardist  recommends  that,  in  order  to  insure  as  perfectly 
shaped  trees  as  possible,  they  be  planted  so  that  the  lowest  branch 
points  in  that  direction. 

Plowing  out  and  planting.  If  conditions  permit,  the  field  can 
be  marked  out  and  the  soil  partly  removed  with  a  plow.  The  gen- 
eral plan  of  Van  Deman  and  Yeomans,  as  described  on  page  58, 
may  be  employed  with  the  addition  of  two  stakes,  as  follows  : 

If  the  plowing  is  to  start  at  M  (Fig.  15),  in  the  direction  of 
iV,  let  someone  set  a  stake  in  line  with  the  three  original  stakes, 
but  beyond  N  at  F,  so  that  when  the  driver  has  passed  the 
middle  stake  at  E,  he  will  still  have  two  stakes  by  which  to  keep 
in  line.  Stakes  are  set  for  the  other  rows  in  the  same  manner. 
The  furrows,  which  are  to  be  made  in  one  direction  only,  may  be 


PLANTING  75 

gone  over  several  times.  Perhaps  the  subsoil  plow  may  be  of  some 
advantage,  especially  in  preparing  the  land  deeper  for  the  planting 
of  the  trees. 

If  planting  follows  the  plowing  immediately,  three  or  four  men, 
or  men  and  boys,  can  be  used  to  advantage  —  one  to  distribute  the 
trees  and  prune  the  roots  ;  another  to  hold  the  trees  and  line  them 
up  in  one  direction,  and  later  to  stamp  in  the  soil  over  the  roots  ; 
and  a  third  to  line  up  the  trees  in  the  other  direction  and  shovel 
the  soil  around  them. 

As  soon  as  the  trees  are  planted,  the  furrows  may  be  filled  in 
with  the  aid  of  the  plow,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  trees 
or  throw  them  out  of  line,  or  they  may  be  left  to  be  leveled  by 
cross-cultivation  during  the  summer. 

Digging  holes  by  dynamite.  Recently  the  use  of  dynamite  for 
digging  holes  has  become  more  common,  but  it  is  not  always  ad- 
visable to  employ  it.  Generally  speaking,  where  the  soil  is  hard 
or  the  subsoil  is  clayey  or  hard  and  impervious,  dynamite  may 
well  be  used,  but  it  is  not  needed  for  sandy  or  open  topsoil  or  sub- 
soils. To  obtain  the  best  results  from  dynamite,  the  operator  should 
have  a  clear  understanding  of  the  principles  of  blasting. 

The  following  discussion  of  the  principles  of  blasting  and  the 
use  of  dynamite  is  based  on  that  of  the  E.  I.  Du  Pont  de  Nemours 
Powder  Company. 

Principles  of  blasting.  When  dynamite  explodes,  it  is  changed 
into  a  very  large  volume  of  hot  gases,  which  exert  a  strong  pushing 
force  equally  in  every  direction,  because  they  require  a  much  larger 
space  than  the  dynamite  which  produced  them.  If  the  dynamite  is 
shut  up  in  a  space  just  large  enough  to  hold  it,  that  is,  if  it  is  closely 
confined  before  it  is  exploded,  the  gases,  in  escaping,  force  out 
and  carry  along  with  them  the  material  which  shuts  them  in. 

These  gases,  pressing  equally  in  every  direction,  will  escape 
principally  where  there  is  the  least  pressure  opposed  to  them, 
that  is,  along  the  lines  of  least  resistance,  and  will  force  out  the 
material  confining  them  more  in  that  direction  than  in  any  other. 
If  the  back  pressure  is  about  the  same  at  the  top  and  on  all  sides, 
then  they  will  carry  with  them,  or  break  up  as  they  escape,  a  large 
amount  of  the  material  which  shuts  them  in  ;  but  if  one  place  in 
the  earth  or  rock  around  them  is  much  weaker  than  all  the  rest, 


76  THE  APPLE 

then  the  gases  will  force  their  way  through  this  weak  spot  and 
will  escape  without  doing  as  much  work  as  they  should. 

It  must  be  remembered  then  that  in  order  to  have  a  charge  of 
dynamite  do  good  work  it  must  be  so  placed  that  the  holding-in 
pressure  is  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  at  the  top  and  on  all 
sides  of  it.  If  a  charge  of  dynamite  explodes  properly,  the  change 
into  gases  is  almost  instantaneous,  although  some  kinds  of  dyna- 
mite explode  —  or  "detonate,"  as  it  is  often  called  —  more  rap- 
idly than  others. 

Dynamite  is  exploded  by  a  detonator.  There  are  two  styles  of 
detonators  —  one  known  as  a  blasting  cap,  and  the  other  as  an 
electric  fusee  (pronounced  /use').  Both  are  small  copper  cylin- 
ders about  \  inch  in  diameter  and  from  il  to  2\  inches  long, 
which  contain  a  small  quantity  of  a  very  powerful  explosive. 
This  explosive  is  quite  sensitive  to  heat  and  shock,  and  a  hard, 
sharp  blow  may  explode  it ;  therefore  detonators  must  be  carefully 
handled. 

The  heat  to  detonate  a  blasting  cap  is  provided  by  the  spark 
from  a  piece  of  fuse,  one  end  of  which  has  been  pushed  into  the 
open  end  of  the  blasting  cap,  and  fastened  there  by  crimping  the 
blasting  cap  on  it  with  a  cap  crimper.  When  the  other  end  of 
the  fuse  is  lighted,  it  burns  through  slowly,  and  when  the  fire 
reaches  it  the  blasting  cap  explodes. 

Preparing  caps  and  fuse.  Placing  the  detonator  in  the  cartridge 
of  dynamite  is  called  priming  it,  and  the  cartridge  with  the  deto- 
nator in  it  is  called  the  primer  cartridge  or  primer.  When  the 
charge  consists  of  more  than  one  cartridge  the  primer  should 
generally  be  loaded  last  or  next  to  the  last. 

The  first  steps.  The  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  the  primer, 
when  using  fuse  and  blasting  cap,  is  to  examine  your  dynamite 
and  see  that  it  is  not  frozen.  Frozen  dynamite  is  hard  and  rigid  ; 
when  thawed  it  is  soft.  Next  examine  your  fuse  ;  see  that  it  is  not 
stiff  and  brittle ;  if  in  this  condition,  it  is  advisable  to  warm  it 
slightly  before  a  fire  until  it  becomes  pliable.  Take  your  cap 
crimpers  and  cut  the  required  length  from  the  roll  ;  the  cut 
should  be  made  squarely  across  and  not  diagonally.  Sometimes 
in  the  cutting  the  end  becomes  flattened,  thereby  making  the  end 
of  the  fuse  too  large  to  enter  the  blasting  cap.    This  end  should 


Fig.  23-    Punch  hole  in  side  of 

cartridge   with    round,   pointed 

handle  of  cap  crimper 


Fig.  34.   Or  else  fasten  fuse  to 
cartridge  by  punching  a  hair- 
pin through  cartridge  on  both 
sides  of  fuse 


Fig.  35.    Crimp  the  blasting  cap 

to  fuse  securely  with  Uu  Pont  cap 

crimper 


Fig.  36.     Insert  blasting  cap 
and  fuse  in  cartridge 


Fig.  37.    Tie  string  to  fuse 


Fig.  38.    Tying  the  fuse  securely  to  the 
cartridge 

77 


Fig.  39.  Bend 

hairpin  points 

up 


7$  THE  APPLE 

be  squeezed  round  with  index  finger  and  thumb,  and  then  inserted 
carefully  into  the  detonator,  well  down  to  the  explosive  charge. 
Do  not  twist  it  about.  The  charge  is  very  sensitive  and  friction 
may  explode  it.  Although  this  operation  is  not  dangerous,  yet 
great  care  should  be  exercised.  After  the  fuse  is  inserted  into 
the  detonator  as  above  described,  take  the  cap  crimper  and  crimp 
the  detonator  to  the  fuse.  The  crimp  should  be  made  near  the  end 
which  the  fuse  enters,  so  as  not  to  disturb  in  any  way  the  explo- 
sive charge  which  the  blasting  cap  contains.  Do  not  use  common 
pincers^  knife,  or  the  teeth  in  this  operation.  If  the  work  is  wet, 
then  smear  the  joint  with  tallow,  wax,  or  soap.  Do  not  use  oily 
grease,  as  the  oil  might  penetrate  the  fuse  wrapping  and  spoil 
the  powder. 

The  next  step.  The  next  operation  is  the  insertion  of  the  cap 
into  the  dynamite  cartridge.  This  may  be  done  by  punching  a 
hole  diagonally  into  the  side  of  the  cartridge,  inserting  the  blast- 
ing cap  into  it,  and  tying  the  fuse  to  the  side  of  the  cartridge  with 
a  piece  of  twine.  Electric  fusees  may  be  inserted  and  fastened  in 
the  same  manner. 

Having  primed  the  cartridge  in  the  manner  described,  insert  it 
in  the  borehole  on  top,  or  next  to  the  top  of  the  rest  of  the  charge 
if  more  than  one  cartridge  is  used,  and  push  it  carefully  home. 
Putting  the  explosive  into  the  borehole  is  called  charging  or  load- 
ing the  borehole.  It  is  generally  best  in  dry  ground  to  slit  the 
paper  shells  lengthwise  in  two  or  three  places  with  a  sharp  knife 
before  putting  the  cartridge  into  the  borehole,  as  a  slit  cartridge 
will  spread  out  in  the  borehole  better.  The  primer  should  not  be 
slit.  Push  the  cartridges,  except  the  primer  cartridge,  firmly  into 
place  with  a  wooden  stick  so  that  they  will  expand  and  fill  up  their 
part  of  the  hole,  for  crevices  or  air  spaces  may  lessen  the  power 
of  the  explosive.  Expanded  cartridges  also  occupy  less  of  the 
length  of  the  borehole  and  make  possible  a  heavy  charge  at  the 
bottom  of  the  hole.  The  primer  is  loaded  last,  or  next  to  the  last, 
and  is  pushed  down  only  hard  enough  to  touch  the  preceding 
cartridge.  Each  cartridge  must  touch  the  one  previously  loaded, 
for  if  there  is  any  space  between  the  cartridge  caused  by  falling 
dirt  or  stones,  or  by  the  sticking  of  a  cartridge  in  the  borehole, 
a  part  of  the  charge  may  fail  to  explode. 


PLANTING  79 

Never  force  a  primer  into  a  borehole,  because  the  detonator 
which  it  contains  is  sensitive  to  shock  and  might  explode  if  too 
much  force  is  used. 

Tamping.  After  the  charge  is  pressed  home,  as  directed,  put 
in  two  or  three  inches  of  fine  dirt  or  damp  sand,  and  with  a 
wooden  stick  press  it  gently  on  top  of  the  dynamite.  Then  fill 
up  two  or  three  inches  more  of  the  hole,  packing  it  in  a  little 
more  firmly.  After  five  or  six  inches  covers  the  charge,  it  may  be 
pressed  firmly  into  place  without  danger  of  premature  explosion. 
The  tamping  material  should  be  packed  as  firmly  on  top  of  the 
charge  as  can  be  done  without  moving  the  electric  fusee  or  blast- 
ing cap  in  the  primer,  but  it  is  not  safe  to  tamp  by  a  blow  any 
stronger  than  can  be  given  by  hand.  Fill  the  borehole  up  with 
tamping  until  even  with  the  surface.  The  firmer  and  harder  the 
tamping  can  be  made  (without  overlooking  the  above  precautions) 
the  better  will  be  the  results.  If  the  borehole  is  not  properly 
tamped,  the  charge  is  likely  to  "blow  out,"  or  at  least  some  of 
its  force  will  be  wasted. 

Do  not  use  iron  or  steel  bars  or  tools  for  tamping,  because  the 
metal  tools  may  detonate  the  explosives.  Use  only  a  wooden 
tamping  stick  with  no  metal  parts. 

Firing.  Exploding  the  charge  is  called  firing,  and  can  be  done 
either  by  caps  and  fuse  or  electrically  by  electric  fusees  and  a 
blasting  machine.  When  cap  and  fuse  are  used,  cut  the  fuse  long 
enough  to  enable  you  to  retire  to  a  safe  distance.  Fuse  burns  on 
an  average  of  two  feet  per  minute. 

Never  light  the  fuse  or  operate  the  blasting  machine  until  you 
have  warned  everyone  near  that  you  are  about  to  fire,  and  until 
you  are  thoroughly  satisfied  that  there  is  no  one  sufficiently  near 
to  be  injured  by  the  material  thrown  into  the  air  by  the  blast. 

What  to  do  in  case  of  misfire.  Never  try  to  dig  out  the  old 
charge.  Make,  charge,  and  prime  a  new  borehole  far  enough  from 
the  first  to  make  sure  the  tools  will  not  touch  the  first  charge. 

Always  fire  just  as  soon  as  possible  after  tamping.  In  fact, 
priming,  charging,  tamping,  and  firing  should  be  done  as  quickly 
as  it  is  possible  to  do  them  thoroughly,  because  wet  or  slightly  damp 
ground  may  injure  the  dynamite  or  even  the  detonator  to  some 
extent,   and   in   cold  weather  dynamite    may  become   chilled   or 


8o  THE  APPLE 

frozen  and  thus  be  made  insensitive.  When  viewing  a  blast  it  is 
always  advisable  to  look  out  carefully  for  falling  material  which 
may  be  thrown  farther  than  anticipated,  and  a  position  should 
always  be  taken  that  will  bring  the  sun  and  wind  at  your  back. 
In  any  case  the  sun  should  not  be  faced,  as  in  doing  so  it  is  natu- 
rally difficult  to  discern  material  flying  through  the  air.  Look  up 
in  the  air,  rather  than  at  the  stump  or  bowlder  being  blasted. 

Never  investigate  a  misfire  immediately.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  charge  does  not  explode  exactly  when  it  should,  but  does 
so  a  little  later.  This  rarely  if  ever  occurs  when  firing  electrically, 
but  is  not  so  infrequent  when  fuse  is  used,  because  careless  tamp- 
ing sometimes  tears  or  abrades  the  fuse  so  that  it  will  burn  very 
slowly.  A  misfire  with  fuse  should  not  be  investigated  for  at  least 
half  an  hour,  and  it  is  much  better  to  wait  a  full  hour.  When 
firing  electrically,  be  sure  that  all  your  connections  are  perfect,  and 
do  not  connect  the  leading  wire  to  the  blasting  machine  until 
everything  else  is  ready  for  the  blast.  This  will  prevent  some 
inexperienced  person  from  accidentally  operating  the  blasting 
machine  and  exploding  the  charge  before  the  blaster  has  had 
time  to  reach  the  safety  line. 

Digging  holes  with  dynamite.  In  a  large  orchard  or  field  a 
blasting  machine  may  be  used  to  detonate  the  charges.  If  only  a 
few  trees  are  to  be  set,  the  blasting  should  be  done  with  fuse  and 
blasting  caps.  Let  the  depth  of  the  holes  for  setting  your  car- 
tridges be  governed  by  the  state  of  the  soil.  Make  a  hole  with 
auger,  sharpened  wood  dibber,  or  crowbar,  well  down  into  the 
subsoil. 

In  very  tight  soils,  as  in  California  hard  pan,  a  whole  cartridge 
of  20  per  cent  or  even  40  per  cent  may  be  necessary.  These  heavy 
charges  should  be  tamped. 

The  usual  charge  is  half  a  cartridge  of  20-per-cent  dynamite 
per  hole,  primed  with  cap  and  fuse.  If  the  soil  in  which  the  tree 
is  to  be  planted  is  of  a  hardpan,  shale,  or  very  compact  clay,  holes 
should  be  tamped  ;  otherwise  no  tamping  is  necessary. 

The  common  practice  is  to  plant  the  trees  shortly  after  the 
holes  are  blasted.  Some  orchardists,  however,  believe  best  results 
will  be  obtained  when  holes  for  spring  planting  are  blasted  in 
the  fall. 


PLANTING  8 1 

This  affords  about  six  months'  time  for  the  air,  moisture,  and 
sunlight  to  work  on  the  subsoil  and  mellow  it. 

If  trees  are  planted  immediately  after  the  blast,  care  must  be 
taken  to  poke  down  the  upheaved  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole 
or  settle  it  well  with  water.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  dirt  may 
shrink  away  from  the  roots  of  the  tree,  leaving  it  suspended  in 
air  or  water,  and  thus  killing  it.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  cause 
of  the  death  of  the  few  dynamite-set  trees  reported  as  failures. 
A  little  care  in  settling  the  dirt  will  prevent  this  trouble. 

For  the  best  results,  throw  out  a  bushel  or  more  of  the  clay  that 
has  been  broken  by  the  shot,  and  fill  with  some  organic  matter  that 
will  slowly  decompose  as  the  years  go  by,  mixing  and  cutting 
in  well  with  a  sharp  shovel  or  spade.  Leaf  mold,  forest  topsoil, 
fence-corner  settlings,  old  bones,  scrapings  from  under  an  old 
house  or  outhouse,  or  any  such  matter  is  good.  Now  that  the 
roots  can  go  down  and  out  in  an  area  broken  and  pulverized  for 
many  feet  on  all  sides,  the  tree  will  make  a  rapid  and  healthy 
growth  and  come  to  bearing  earlier  and  live  many  years  longer. 
It  will  also  be  better  able  to  resist  drought  and  insects,  for  the 
much-talked-of  "  insect-resisting  tree  "  is  not  a  tree  immune  from 
insects,  but  one  that  is  healthy  and  vigorous  enough  to  overcome 
their  baneful  attack. 

TABLE  OF  CHARGES  AND  AMOUNT  OF  20-PER-CENT  DYNAMITE 
REQUIRED   PER  ACRE  FOR  PLANTING  TREES 


1  listance  between  Trees, 
Square  Method 

Trees  per 
Acre 

Dynamite  per  Acre, 

using  A  Cartridge 

per  Tree 

No.  6  Blast- 
ing Caps  per 
Acre 

Fuse1  per  Acre, 

using  2%  inches 

per  Ton 

Cost  per 
Acre 

I5  ft. 

20  ft. 
30  ft. 
40  ft. 

196 
I  IO 

49 

25 

49  lb. 

28  lb. 
13  lb. 
7  lb. 

196 
1  IO 
49 
25 

490  ft. 

275  ft. 
122  ft. 
63  ft. 

$11.62 
6.68 
3.00 

i-5S 

No  matter  how  the  holes  are  dug,  in  planting  the  tree  the  prin- 
ciple is  the  same.  Good  fertile  soil  should  be  selected  for  immediate 
contact  with  the  roots,  and  clods  or  lumps  should  be  avoided.  Tamp 
the  soil  thoroughly  around  the  plant  —  perhaps  the  fingers  would 


1  It  is  necessary  to  have  as  many  feet  of  fuse  per  hole  as  the  hole  is  deep. 


82  THE  APPLE 

be  best  to  press  the  soil  among  the  finer  roots.  Have  the  tree  set 
as  mentioned  previously  (p.  73),  just  a  little  deeper  than  it  stood 
in  the  nursery.  It  may  be  well  to  allow  the  soil  around  the  tree 
to  slope  slightly  toward  it.  The  final  shovelful  should  be  spread 
around  the  tree  without  firming,  in  order  to  establish  a  dust  blanket 
or  mulch  which  will  prevent  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation. 

Watering.  The  common  belief  that  apple  trees  should  have  a 
liberal  supply  of  water  at  transplanting  time  is  not  well  founded. 
The  soil  is  in  best  condition  for  transplanting  when  just  moist 
enough  for  easy  working.  This  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a 
"  mellow  "  condition  or  a"  good  state  of  tilth."  Any  addition  of 
water  to  the  soil  during  the  process  of  transplanting  must  be  harm- 
ful. Planting  when  the  earth  is  sticky  cannot  be  commended,  but 
if  water  is  ever  to  be  added,  it  may  possibly  be  when  work  must 
continue  even  though  the  earth  is  too  adhesive  to  permit  proper 
working  among  and  about  the  roots.  By  a  long  series  of  experi- 
ments it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  best  way  to  supply  water 
to  transplanted  apple  trees  is  to  make  the  earth  about  the  roots  so 
compact  that  there  will  be  no  recognizable  air  spaces.  This  is  why 
firm  packing  of  the  fine  earth  around  the  roots  is  of  the  greatest 
value.  The  earth  particles  must  be  in  a  state  of  fine  division,  and 
each  particle  must  be  surrounded  by  an  adherent  film  of  water, 
or  the  water  supply  will  not  be  sufficient.  It  is  well  known  that 
when  soil  is  stirred  while  saturated  with  water  it  afterwards  tends 
to  "bake  " ;  that  is,  to  form  a  hard,  unyielding  mass,  very  difficult 
to  pulverize.  It  is  then  in  no  condition  to  hold  film  water,  and  the 
trees  will  suffer. 


CHAPTER  X 
PROPER  PRUNING 

Could  all  fruit  trees  be  treated  by  the  same  plan  or  set  of  rules, 
pruning  would  be  a  simple  operation.  But  the  different  fruits  have 
different  habits  of  growth,  and  trees  of  the  same  variety  differ  in 
their  development  even  under  similar  conditions.  No  two  trees  are 
alike  in  all  respects.  Pruning,  then,  to  be  well  done  should  meet 
the  needs  of  each  tree. 

The  knowledge  a  pruner  should  have.  If  the  many  thousands 
of  fruit  trees  set  out  each  year  are  to  develop  properly,  they  must 
be  pruned  annually.  The  development  of  a  tree  depends  largely  on 
the  cultivation  given,  the  amount  of  plant  food  supplied,  and  the 
character  of  the  pruning.  Of  these  factors  in  the  life  of  the  tree, 
pruning  is  the  most  economical  and  the  most  neglected.  But  the 
pruner,  to  do  his  work  well,  must  have  some  knowledge  of  the 
character  of  growth  of  the  different  varieties  to  be  pruned  and 
of  the  principles  that  underlie  such  work.  The  application  of 
these  principles  must  be  worked  out  for  each  tree  by  a  study  of 
its  individual  needs. 

Why  we  prune.  There  are  many  reasons  for  pruning.  The 
primary  result  to  be  secured  is  such  an  improvement  of  the  tree 
that  it  will  produce  better  fruit  and  more  of  it.  The  time  is  past 
when  we  can  set  out  trees  and  leave  them  to  shift  for  themselves, 
and  expect  finally  to  be  rewarded  by  abundant  harvests  of  high- 
grade  fruit. 

If  we  go  into  orchards  where  little  or  no  pruning  has  been  done, 
we  find  limbs  crowded  closely  together,  dense  tops,  branches  dead 
or  dying  and  in  all  states  of  weakness.  We  find  the  sunlight  shut 
out,  —  although  sunshine,  probably  more  than  anything  else,  influ- 
ences the  color  of  the  fruit,  —  poor  air  circulation,  large  numbers 
of  insects  and  fungi,  and  a  large  amount  of  inferior  fruit.  We  prune, 
then,  to  change  these  conditions,  although  we  must  remember  that 

83 


84 


THE  APPLE 


pruning  is  but  one  of  the  important  factors  in  the  success  or  failure 
of  the  orchard  —  spraying,  cultivation,  and  the  application  of  plant 
food  must  each  receive  its  proper  share  of  attention. 

If  we  wish  to  make  a  tree  more  vigorous  we  remove  a  portion 
of  the  top  by  pruning  when  dormant,  so  that  the  growth  may  be 
concentrated  in  a  smaller  number  of  branches,  thus  developing  a 

stronger  tree  and  permit- 
ting the  nourishment  to 
pass  to  parts  where  it  will 
do  the  most  good.  We 
also  prune  for  other  rea- 
sons —  to  secure  a  low 
or  a  high  head ;  to  con- 
trol the  arrangement  of 
the  framework  or  scaffold 
limbs  of  the  tree  so  that 
they  will  not  break  under 
a  heavy  weight  of  fruit ; 
to  avoid  sunscald  by  hav- 
ing the  top  low  and  the 
trunk  well  protected  from 
the  sun's  rays  by  the 
branches  above ;  to  de- 
velop a  leader  or  to  form 
an  open-centered  tree,  as 
desired  ;  to  facilitate  the 
operations  of  spraying  and 
harvesting. 

When  to  prune.  There 
is  no  one  time  that  is 
always  under  all  circum- 
stances best  for  pruning.  Conditions  vary,  and  the  time  of  prun- 
ing depends  largely  on  conditions.  In  some  cases  pruning  is 
begun  before  the  tree  is  set,  by  shortening  in  straggling  or  injured 
roots.  It  should  begin  with  the  first  year  of  the  set  tree  and  be  con- 
tinued annually.  It  is  poor  policy  to  let  the  pruning  go  for  the  first 
few  years  and  later  find  it  necessary  to  prune  heavily.  Systematic 
light  annual  pruning  is  much  more  satisfactory  than  an  occasional 


Fig.  40.    A  very  young  tree 

Three  months  after  the  tree  has  been  placed  in 
the  orchard 


PROPER  PRUNING  85 

severe  pruning.  Whenever  a  branch  is  removed  a  wound  is  made, 
and  so  far  as  the  healing  process  is  concerned,  the  best  time  to 
prune  is  toward  spring,  just  before  the  beginning  of  growth.  If 
the  cut  is  made  in  the  fall  or  early  winter,  there  can  be  no  healing 
until  growth  starts,  and  the  cut  surface  may  be  exposed  a  long  while 
to  the  action  of  the  weather  or  to  the  attacks  of  insects  or  fungi. 

Summer  pruning  may  occasionally  be  practiced  in  midsummer 
or  late  in  July,  but  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  it  is  always  a 
weakening  process.  Sometimes,  however,  with  overvigorous,  rank- 
growing,  nonproductive  trees,  it  tends  to  check  overgrowth,  with  a 
resulting  tendency  toward  the  formation  of  fruit  buds.  We  cannot, 
however,  say  that  the  mere  operation  of  pruning  will  result  in  fruit- 
fulness.  The  production  of  fruit  depends  upon  many  factors,  — 
of  which  pruning  is  but  one,  —  such  as  character  of  soil,  variety, 
tillage,  plant  food,  spraying,  or  on  a  combination  of  several  of 
these  factors. 

Root  pruning.  A  certain  amount  of  root  pruning  before  the  trees 
are  planted  seems  to  be  necessary  to  get  the  best  results.  Long, 
straggling  roots  should  be  cut  off,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that 
when  apple  trees  leave  the  nursery  row  their  root  surface  is  usually 
only  about  half  what  they  possessed  normally.  In  addition  to  the 
heavy  nursery  pruning,  it  is  generally  advisable  to  thin  out  all 
crowding  and  interlacing  roots,  and  to  remove  all  broken  ends  of 
the  remaining  roots,  leaving  clean  cuts.  This  latter  point,  however, 
is  not  being  emphasized  as  much  now  as  formerly. 

The  Stringfellow  method  of  pruning  roots  is  practiced  in  the 
South,  but  hardly  at  all  in  the  North.  This  is  a  very  severe  system, 
consisting  in  the  practically  complete  removal  of  all  roots  except 
small  stubs.  The  opportune  time  for  this  pruning  is  on  the  arrival 
of  the  trees  in  the  fall.  When  the  trees  do  not  arrive  until  spring, 
the  pruning  may  be  done  just  before  planting. 

Pruning  the  top.  With  the  root  system  so  severely  cut  back,  the 
balance  of  the  tree  between  the  top  and  the  roots  has  been  very 
much  upset.  In  most  climates,  if  trees  are  left  without  the  tops 
being  pruned,  many  will  perish,  because  their  much  shortened  root 
systems  cannot  give  the  necessary  support.  The  top  of  the  tree, 
therefore,  must  be  pruned  back  to  enable  it  to  withstand  the  shock 
of  transplanting.    The  actual  pruning  can  be  done  after  planting. 


86  THE  APPLE 

The  head  should  be  started  low  for  several  reasons.  Many 
young  trees  are  killed  each  year  because  their  trunks  are  exposed 
to  the  drying  afternoon  sun.  The  trunk  may  be  affected  by  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  or  by  the  reflection  from  hot,  dry  soil  or 
snow.  Sunscald  in  the  summer  is  much  more  prevalent  on  high- 
headed  trees  than  on  low  ones.  The  low-headed  trees  also  have 
the  advantage  of  being  more  conveniently  and  cheaply  handled  as 
regards  pruning,  thinning,  spraying,  and  picking  the  fruit.  Then 
there  is  less  likelihood  of  damage  to  the  fruit  from  windstorms. 
It  is  possible,  however,  to  start  the  head  too  close  to  the  ground 
for  easy  cultivation  and  for  the  use  of  burlap  bands  for  the  control 
of  the  codling  moth.  A  trunk  between  20  and  24  inches  from  the 
ground  to  the  first  limb  seems  to  be  about  right.  Therefore,  in 
planting  one-year-old  whips,  cut  them  back  to  about  30  inches 
from  the  ground,  which  will  give  a  space  of  10  or  12  inches  be- 
tween the  starting  points  of  the  lower  and  the  upper  limb  for  the 
distribution  of  the  scaffold  limbs.  In  this  cutting  back,  make  a 
slanting  cut  just  above  a  sound  bud,  which  will  develop  by  this 
pruning  into  a  lateral  branch. 

It  is  also  desirable  to  begin  the  shaping  of  the  orchard  tree  at 
this  early  date.  The  form  of  the  tree  will  depend  somewhat  on 
the  ideals  of  the  grower.  There  are  two  distinct  types  seen  in  the 
fruit  sections  of  the  country —  the  open-headed,  or  vase-shaped,  tree, 
and  the  pyramidal  tree,  which  is  pruned  with  a  leader.  The  open- 
headed  tree  seems  to  be  constantly  gaining  in  popularity,  and  is 
by  far  the  commonest  form  found  in  the  newly  planted  sections. 
The  ideal  for  this  type  is  a  spreading  tree  with  an  open  center. 
When  the  center  is  kept  open  and  the  branches  are  thinned  out 
so  that  sunlight  is  admitted  freely,  much  fruit  is  borne  on  the 
central  branches,  as  well  as  on  the  outside  limbs,  and  fruit  spurs 
are  found  all  along  the  branches  extending  nearly  to  the  main 
trunk  of  the  tree. 

Pruning  to  this  vase  shape  can  be  overdone,  however.  Trees 
cannot  all  be  pruned  in  the  same  manner,  without  regard  to  variety 
characteristics.  Under  the  same  treatment  the  Jonathan  and  the 
Ben  Davis  make  very  shapely  trees,  and  the  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing becomes  too  spreading.  The  Rhode  Island  Greening  be- 
ing naturally  a  spreading  type  should  not  be  allowed  to  spread 


PROPER  PRUNING 


87 


excessively  during  its  early  growth.  Therefore,  some  of  the  more 
upright  branches  should  be  selected  for  the  framework  of  the 
tree  during  its  first  two  years. 

In  pruning  for  the  open-headed  tree  the  endeavor  should  be 
to  have  from  three  to  five  scaffold  limbs,  evenly  distributed  around 
the  tree,  which  form  a  vase-shaped  top  with  an  open  center.  These 
main  branches  should  be  dis- 
tributed within  a  space  of  10 
or  12  inches  on  the  trunk, 
thus  making  a  strong  frame- 
work for  the  tree.  If  they  are 
in  a  cluster,  the  resulting  un- 
evenness  of  weight  is  liable 
to  split  the  tree  apart. 

Pruning  one-year-old  tree. 
Most  orchardists  leave  the 
shaping  of  the  young  tree  and 
the  selection  of  the  scaffold 
limbs  until  the  first  year's 
pruning  ;  that  is,  trees  set  out 
in  the  early  spring  receive 
their  first  real  pruning  as 
orchard  trees  the  next  March, 
the  simple  heading  back  hav- 
ing been  done  at  the  time  of 
planting.  The  trees  should  be 
gone  over,  however,  at  least 
once  during  the  first  summer 


Fig.  41.    Pruning  the  young  tree 

In  the  spring  of  its  second  year  the  young 

tree  is  slightly  pruned  ;  wire  screen  at  base,  to 

protect  tree  against  mice  ravages 


(about  the  first  of  July)  to  remove  all  sucker  growth  from  the 
roots  and  all  low  branches  growing  less  than  20  inches  from  the 
ground.  At  the  time  of  the  first  March  pruning,  it  will  be  found 
that  from  five  to  ten  lateral  branches  have  started  from  the  main 
trunk.  As  already  stated,  select  from  three  to  five  of  these  for  the 
scaffold  limbs,  removing  the  others  as  close  to  the  young  trunk  as 
the  cut  can  be  made.  Head  back  these  scaffold  limbs,  which  are 
to  form  the  framework  of  the  tree,  about  half  of  their  growth,  leav- 
ing them  between  1 5  and  1 8  inches  long.  This  has  a  tendency  to  in- 
crease their  diameter  rapidly  and  thus  make  a  strong  framework. 


THE  APPLE 


If  the  scaffold  limbs  are  allowed  to  remain  unpruned,  they  will 
become  long  and  willowy  and  will  be  easily  broken  with  the 
first  heavy  crop  of  fruit.  The  cutting  back  of  the  scaffold  limbs 
induces  the  growth  of  lateral  buds,  which  form  branches  and  help 
to  produce  a  stalky  young  tree.    In  heading  back  these  branches 

the  orchardist  should  cut 
back  to  the  buds  which 
point  in  the  general  direc- 
tion he  wishes  the  branch 
to  take.  The  proper  start- 
ing of  the  young  trees 
at  this  time  will  largely 
do  away  with  the  need 
of  props  in  the  future 
orchard. 

In  pruning  an  upright- 
growing  tree  so  that  it 
will  spread  more  than  it 
would  naturally,  the  pruner 
should  cut  to  the  outside 
buds  and  branches.  The 
reverse  should  be  done  if 
one  wishes  to  correct  the 
sprawling,  spreading  habit 
of  certain  varieties  and 
cause  them  to  grow  more 
upright. 

Second-year  pruning. 
This  season's  pruning  is 
similar  to  the  first  year's. 
Remove  all  the  side 
branches  that  have  started  from  the  scaffold  limbs  except  two  or 
three  of  the  strongest  laterals.  Care  should  be  taken  to  select  not 
only  strong,  vigorous  lateral  growths,  but  those  which  will  make 
the  tree  well  shaped  and  symmetrically  balanced.  If  possible, 
select  laterals  that  are  distributed  along  the  scaffold  limbs  rather 
than  those  that  come  out  in  a  crotch,  for  the  latter  are  more  likely 
to  break  down  under  heavy  stress.     It  is  also  essential  to  avoid 


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Fig.  42.    Northern  Spy 

An  ideal  young  tree  in  its  second  summer  from 
setting 


PROPER  PRUNING 


89 


having  these  branches  cross  each  other.  Cut  out  all  sucker  growth 
in  the  center,  and  if  two  parallel  branches  are  too  close  together,  re- 
move one.  These  selected  laterals  should  now  be  headed  back  about 
a  third  or  a  half  of  their  growth,  leaving  them  1 5  or  1 8  inches  long. 

Third-  and  fourth-year  prunings.  The  framework  of  the  young 
trees  should  now  be  well 
formed  and  henceforth 
require  less  attention. 
The  trees  should,  how- 
ever, be  moderately 
pruned  each  year  rather 
than  neglected  for  sev- 
eral years  and  then 
severely  pruned.  Less 
heading  back  will  be 
necessary  each  year. 
Sunshine  is  essential 
for  the  development 
of  the  fruit  buds  and 
the  proper  coloring  of 
the  fruit.  Therefore,  all 
sucker  growth  in  the 
center  of  the  tree  should 
be  removed  for  the  good 
of  the  other  branches. 
This  growth,  situated  as 
it  is  in  the  more  or  less 
shaded  sections  of  the 
tree,  would  not  develop 
fruit  spurs  to  any  ex- 
tent if  allowed  to  remain. 

Trim  out  all  branches  that  rub  together  or  grow  crosswise. 
Remove  one  of  any  two  parallel  branches  which  have  a  tendency 
to  whip  together,  injuring  themselves  and  their  fruit,  or  which  are 
so  crowded  that  it  is  desirable  to  try  to  grow  only  one  good  branch 
within  the  space.  If  the  tree  is  growing  too  tall  and  upright  the 
excessive  growth  may  be  cut  back  to  lateral  branches,  causing  the 
tree  to  assume  a  more  spreading  form. 


Fig.  43.    An  extra  fine  young  tree,  well  pruned 


90  THE  APPLE 

By  the  time  the  apple  tree  is  four  years  old,  if  it  has  been  well 
handled,  the  orchardist  may  begin  to  prune  to  promote  fruit 
production.  Less  severe  cutting  will  aid  materially  in  bringing 
this  about. 

The  effect  of  pruning.  Frequent  cutting  back  or  pruning  of  the 
branches  of  the  apple  tree  while  it  is  young  has  a  tendency  to  pre- 
vent the  growth  of  long,  bare  branches  which  are  so  characteristic 
of  old  orchard  trees.  It  has  a  tendency,  as  well,  to  prevent  the 
tree  from  growing  too  tall,  thereby  reducing  the  cost  and  difficulty 
of  spraying  the  tree  and  harvesting  the  fruit.  Less  propping  is 
necessary  with  the  low-headed  trees  well  pruned  than  with  trees 
having  long  framework  branches.  Since  the  main  structural 
branches  of  the  former  are  larger  in  proportion  to  their  length, 
and  the  load  of  fruit  is  carried  nearer  the  trunk,  the  trees  are 
therefore  better  able  to  carry  any  amount  of  fruit  that  may 
develop. 

Influence  on  "  off  "  years.  Judicious  pruning  not  only  facilitates 
the  work  of  cultivation,  spraying,  and  harvesting,  but  also  deter- 
mines to  a  great  extent  the  fruiting  habits  of  the  tree  ;  in  other 
words,  it  is  possible  by  proper  pruning  so  to  modify  the  quantity 
of  fruit-bearing  wood  of  a  tree  that  it  will  be  practically  impossible 
for  the  tree  to  retain  more  fruits  in  any  given  season  than  the 
root  system  is  capable  of  supplying  with  a  proper  amount  of  nour- 
ishment. Annual  crops  are  more  common  and  biennial  crops  less 
frequent  when  such  a  balance  between  the  fruit-bearing  wood  of 
the  tree  and  its  root  system  is  maintained.  It  is  without  doubt 
true  —  as  apple-growers  are  coming  to  believe  —  that  the  biennial 
crop  in  many  apple  orchards  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  during 
the  crop  year  the  trees  are  allowed  to  overbear,  thereby  reducing 
their  vitality  so  that  they  cannot  carry  a  satisfactory  load  of  apples 
the  succeeding  year. 

What  to  do  with  thinnings.  Sections  of  the  tree  removed  by 
pruning  are  often  useful  in  the  house.  Being  a  hardwood,  the 
apple  limbs  and  twigs  make  a  hot  fire  of  lasting  quality.  They 
are  especially  well  suited  to  the  open  fireplace,  making  one  of  the 
prettiest  of  fires,  and  giving  off  an  agreeable  odor  while  burning. 


CHAPTER  XI 
COVER  CROPS 

An  orchard  cover  crop  is  a  crop  that  is  grown  among  the  trees  in 
the  orchard,  during  the  normal  seasons  of  tillage,  for  the  purpose  of 
serving  as  a  mulch  and  helping  to  provide  plant  food.  Technically 
considered,  an  orchard  cover  crop  is  a  crop  that  is  grown  for  the 
benefit  of  the  trees  during  the  late  summer  and  fall,  and  is  left  on 
the  ground  through  the  winter  and  worked  into  the  soil  in  the  spring. 
It  is  not  a  crop  at  all  in  the  sense  that  it  is  to  be  removed  from 
the  land  like  grain  or  forage  ;  neither  should  it  be  confused  with  a 
permanent  sod  of  grass.  The  growing  of  cover  crops  in  the  late 
summer  and  early  fall  presupposes  some  sort  of  cultivation  during 
the  spring  and  early  summer. 

Benefits  derived  from  cover  crops.  Some  of  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  the  growing  of  a  cover  crop  in  the  orchard  are 
summarized  below  : 

i .  A  heavy  growth  of  herbage  will  have  a  tendency  to  prevent 
deep  freezing  of  the  soil,  especially  in  those  sections  where  the 
bare  ground  is  exposed  to  low  temperatures  either  through  lack  of 
snow  or  through  the  action  of  the  winds  in  blowing  the  snow  away. 

2.  The  roots  of  plants  and  their  growth  aboveground  help  to 
keep  the  soil  from  being  washed  or  worn  away.  This  retention  of 
the  soil  aids  greatly  in  preventing  the  roots  of  the  apple  trees  from 
being  exposed  and  injured  by  freezing. 

3.  When  the  mass  of  plant  material,  either  green  or  dead,  that 
has  been  grown  for  a  cover  crop  is  plowed  under,  it  adds  to  the 
soil  that  very  important  factor,  humus-making  material.  By  this 
means  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  in  time  greatly  improved. 

4.  Stiff  clay  soils  are  so  much  improved  by  a  few  years  of  cover 
crops  plowed  under  that  they  are  subsequently  much  easier  to 
work.  As  a  result,  the  time  and  cost  of  doing  the  necessary  work 
is  lessened. 


92  THE  APPLE 

5 .  The  tillage  and  cultivation  of  clay  soils  is  also  made  easier 
by  the  plowing  under  of  cover  crops.  This  is  because  the  humus 
which  has  been  incorporated  in  the  soil  lessens  the  puddling  and 
cementing  of  these  soils. 

6.  Light  soils  are  also  benefited  by  the  addition  of  humus- 
making  material,  in  so  far  as  they  are  rendered  more  retentive  of 
moisture,  and  therefore  suffer  less  from  drought.  The  action  of 
the  humus  on  these  looser,  light  soils  is  seemingly  that  of  making 
them  more  compact,  while  the  tendency  with  the  clay  soils,  as  has 
just  been  pointed  out,  is  to  loosen  or  lighten  them. 

7.  The  decay  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  helps  to  break 
down  the  plant  food  that  is  already  in  the  soil  but  not  available  to 
the  plant.  By  the  action  of  this  decay  and  the  consequent  action 
of  organisms  in  the  soil,  plant  food  is  set  free. 

8.  Where  legumes,  such  as  the  clovers,  vetches,  etc.  are  used 
for  the  cover  crop,  not  only  is  the  food  which  the  plants  took  up 
from  the  soil  returned  to  it  by  the  decay  of  the  plants,  but  the 
nitrogen  which  the  plants  assimilated  from  the  air  is  also  given 
up  to  the  soil.    This  is  an  addition  of  a  costly  plant  food. 

9.  Where  windfalls  are  of  value  a  heavy  mulch  on  the  soil 
will  serve  as  a  cushion,  thereby  preventing  the  soiling  or  bruising 
of  the  fallen  fruit. 

10.  Cover  crops  make  young,  late-growing  trees  better  able  to 
stand  severe  winters,  by  causing  them  to  mature  their  wood  properly 
in  the  fall. 

Other  advantages  are  frequently  claimed  by  orchardists,  but 
those  just  given  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  principal  recognized 
benefits. 

Bad  effects  of  cover  crops.  The  effects  of  cover  crops  are  not  all 
good.  It  has  been  found  that  such  crops  reduce  the  soil  moisture 
during  the  fall  and  in  some  cases  keep  the  soil  dry  until  winter  sets 
in.  They  also  retard  the  growth  of  trees  somewhat,  and  in  certain 
instances,  for  example,  the  rye  crop  may  cause  great  injury  to 
the  orchard  in  times  of  drought.  From  a  hasty  survey  of  the  sub- 
ject it  would  seem  that  the  good  effects  of  cover  crops  are  often 
counterbalanced  by  their  ill  effects,  and  that  if  we  are  to  avail 
ourselves  of  the  advantages,  we  must  be  prepared  to  put  up  with 
the  disadvantages. 


COVER  CROPS  93 

Classification  of  cover  crops.  Horticultural  writers  commonly 
separate  cover  crops  into  two  classes  —  leguminous  and  nonlegumi- 
nous.  The  first  are  the  nitrogen  gatherers  —  plants  which,  through 
the  agency  of  the  bacteria  in  their  roots,  add  to  the  store  of  nitrogen 
in  the  soil.  Some  of  these  are  beans,  peas,  vetch,  cowpeas,  soy 
beans,  etc.  Cover  crops  of  the  second  class  add  no  nitrogen  to  the 
soil ;  they  simply  return  to  it  when  they  decompose  what  they  took 
from  it  in  growth.  Plants  of  this  class  are  rape,  buckwheat,  millet, 
cane,  oats,  and  the  like.  This  classification  has  come  into  use 
largely  because  the  literature  of  horticulture  is  for  the  most  part 
from  the  East.  The  classification  is  no  doubt  the  best  one  for 
regions  where  the  fertilizer  problem  is  all-important.  But  in  the 
West  the  question  of  orchard  fertilizers  is  generally  insignificant 
in  comparison  with  the  moisture  problem  ;  Westerners,  therefore, 
must  consider  cover  crops  just  as  they  do  other  culture  problems  — 
from  the  standpoint  of  soil  moisture  and  winter  injury. 

All  cover  crops  dry  the  soil  more  or  less  during  the  late  summer 
and  early  fall.  Some  crops  are  killed  by  the  early  frosts  and  no 
longer  keep  the  ground  dry,  but  act  something  as  a  litter  mulch  does 
in  checking  evaporation  from  the  soil.  Other  crops  are  uninjured 
by  early  frosts  and  continue  growth  until  severe  freezing  weather 
kills  them,  thus  keeping  the  soil  dry  late  into  fall.  Still  others  live 
through  the  winter,  and  early  in  the  spring  begin  again  to  dry 
the  soil. 

Some  cover  crops  mat  down,  thus  forming  a  fair  mulch  for  winter 
protection,  but  do  not  hold  the  snow  ;  others  stand  erect,  and, 
although  furnishing  little  direct  winter  protection,  by  catching  the 
drifting  snow  give  excellent  indirect  protection  to  tree  roots. 

Erect  snow-holding  versus  prostrate  mulch-forming  cover  crops. 
Certain  plants  are  sometimes  recommended  for  cover  crops,  because 
on  the  approach  of  winter  they  mat  down  and  protect  the  soil  like 
a  mulch.  There  is  no  doubt  that  mulches  of  any  coarse  material 
are  an  excellent  means  of  preventing  deep  freezing  of  the  ground 
and  the  consequent  injury  to  tree  roots,  but  no  crop  known  to  the 
writer  will,  when  sown  in  midsummer,  form  a  mulch  of  sufficient 
depth  to  prevent  freezing,  however  thoroughly  it  mats  down. 
Observations  that  have  been  made  indicate  that  cover  crops  are 
less  effective  as  soil  mulches  than  as  snow  holders.   Nothing  known 


94  THE  APPLE 

to  the  writer  is  superior  to  a  blanket  of  snow  for  protection  against 
deep  freezing.  Therefore  the  cover  crop  which  holds  snow  the 
best  is  usually  the  best  protector  for  tree  roots.  This  may  not  apply 
to  all  parts  of  the  United  States  nor  to  all  winters.  Periods  of 
extreme  cold  unaccompanied  by  snow  are  experienced  in  all  apple- 
growing  sections  of  the  country  occasionally,  and  in  some  sections 
frequently.  Some  sections  not  only  have  comparatively  little  snow, 
but  what  there  is  usually  comes  with  considerable  wind  and  drifts 
badly,  leaving  much  of  the  ground  bare.  For  these  reasons  the 
cover  crops  should  be  those  that  will  catch  what  little  snow  falls 
and  keep  it  evenly  spread  over  the  ground. 

Many  crops  such  as  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  corn,  etc.  have  been 
given  a  trial,  with  the  following  results.  Early  in  winter  it  was 
found  that  soy  beans  had  few  leaves  left  and  stood  perfectly  erect, 
furnishing  almost  no  protection  to  the  soil.  Cowpeas,  though  they 
still  held  their  leaves,  stood  too  erect  to  afford  much  protection. 
The  field  peas  held  their  leaves  well  and  had  matted  down  neatly, 
forming  a  good  mulch.  Corn  was  also  found  to  have  remained  very 
erect,  as  was  also  the  case  with  cane  and  millet.  Later  in  the  winter 
it  was  noted  that  the  snow  was  held  very  well  by  corn,  cane,  millet, 
soy  beans,  and  cowpeas,  while  field  peas  and  rye,  though  good  covers, 
lay  too  flat  on  the  ground  to  catch  the  drifting  snow.  The  almost 
bare  stems  of  such  plants  as  soy  beans,  which  still  stood  erect,  held 
the  snow  much  better  than  a  plant  like  field  peas,  which  retained  its 
leaves  but  matted  down  too  close  upon  the  ground.  The  stalks  left 
standing  after  a  crop  of  corn  grown  in  the  ordinary  way  has  been 
harvested  make  a  very  efficient  snow  holder,  but  furnish  little 
protection  to  the  ground  at  times  of  intense  cold  unaccompanied 
by  snow. 

Frost-killed  versus  frost-resistant  cover  crops.  In  the  East,  to 
furnish  protection  from  washing  and  freezing,  crops  such  as  rye, 
clovers,  vetch,  etc.,  that  live  through  the  winter,  are  preferred  as 
cover  crops.  In  the  West,  in  regions  having  somewhat  dry  falls, 
cover  crops  that  are  killed  by  the  early  frosts  are  preferable  to  those 
that  live  until  severe  freezing  weather  comes,  or  all  winter.  The 
crops  that  seem  to  be  best  for  the  Western  states  are  millet,  corn, 
and  cane.  They  start  growth  promptly  when  sown  in  midsummer, 
choke  out  the  weeds,  and  dry  the  ground  during  the  early  fall ; 


COVER  CROPS  95 

they  are  killed  by  early  frosts,  and  not  only  make  a  good  direct 
winter  cover,  but  indirectly  protect  the  soil  by  holding  the  snow 
fairly  well.  Corn  makes  a  poorer  growth  during  a  dry  fall  than 
cane  or  millet.  When  sown  rather  late,  not  more  than  two  months 
before  the  first  frost,  corn  and  cane  are  apt  to  break  down  and  lie 
too  flat  upon  the  ground  to  hold  snow  well.  When  sown  earlier 
they  stand  up  better,  but  are  too  heavy  and  coarse  to  work  into  the 
ground  well  the  next  spring.  Millet  makes  a  good  cover  if  it  can 
get  six  weeks  of  growth  before  frost.  It  stands  nearly  erect  and 
thus  holds  the  snow  well,  and  is  so  leafy  that  it  affords  fair  winter 
protection  even  without  snow.  It  sometimes  grows  so  large  that  it 
is  difficult  to  work  into  the  ground  with  a  disk,  but  can  be  covered 
well  with  a  plow.  It  puts  the  land  in  excellent  physical  condition. 
The  orchard  plat  that  has  had  a  cover  crop  of  millet  every  season 
for  five  years  produces  a  much  heavier  growth  of  millet  than  it  did 
at  first.  The  main  drawback  to  using  this  crop  is  the  fact  that 
when  the  early  frosts  are  delayed  much  more  than  two  months 
after  it  is  sown,  it  ripens  seed  so  abundantly  as  to  be  a  nuisance 
the  next  season.  When  sown  between  the  middle  and  the  last  of 
July  it  has  ripened  seed  twice  in  the  last  six  years.  The  large 
German  millet  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  smaller  kinds.  A  crop 
that  behaves  like  millet  in  all  other  respects  but  ripens  later  would 
be  an  almost  ideal  cover  crop  for  this  section.  Japanese  millet 
ripens  later,  but  whether  it  would  be  as  satisfactory  as  German 
millet  in  other  respects  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

The  best  cover  crop.  This  question  can  be  answered,  if  at  all, 
only  when  we  know  the  conditions  under  which  the  cover  crop 
is  to  be  grown.  We  do  know,  however,  what  a  cover  crop  should 
accomplish.  It  should  start  growth  promptly,  to  insure  an  even 
stand  and  to  choke  out  weeds.  It  should  grow  vigorously,  to  pro- 
vide a  heavy  winter  cover,  and,  in  the  case  of  late-growing  trees,  to 
dry  the  ground  so  as  to  hasten  their  maturity.  It  should  be  heavy 
enough  to  furnish  direct  protection  against  freezing  and  thawing  of 
the  ground,  and  should  stand  sufficiently  erect  to  hold  snow  against 
the  force  of  strong  winds.  If  a  cover  crop  can  be  found  to  satisfy 
these  conditions,  it  will  prevent  the  washing  away  of  the  surface 
soil  on  all  but  the  steepest  slopes,  and  by  the  formation  of  humus 
in  its  decay  will  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  and  aid 


96  THE  APPLE 

in  the  conservation  of  moisture  during  the  summer.  A  further 
requirement,  in  the  case  of  poor  soils  or  of  old  and  feeble  trees, 
is  that  the  cover  crop  be  a  leguminous  one,  so  that  it  will  add  to 
the  store  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  and  thereby  increase  the  vigor 
of  the  trees. 

General  management.  If  the  orchard  is  plowed  early  in  the 
spring  and  worked  up  by  frequent  harrowing  so  that  the  surface  is 
as  fine  as  possible,  the  crop  will  be  ready  to  plant  between  July  1 5 
and  August  1 5 ,  according  to  the  crop  used  and  the  location  of 
the  orchard.  A  drill  may  be  used  in  sowing,  or  the  seed  may  be 
broadcast  by  machinery  or  by  hand.  After  the  seed  is  sown,  roll- 
ing, followed  by  a  light  harrowing,  will  hasten  germination,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  the  smaller  seed,  which  need  not  be  sown  so 
deeply  as  the  larger  kinds.  No  more  work  on  the  soil  is  necessary 
till  spring,  when  the  cover  crop  should  be  plowed  under  as  soon  as 
the  land  can  be  worked,  and  clean  cultivation  be  continued  until 
July  or  August,  when  another  crop  is  sown. 

Management  of  a  young  orchard.  A  system  of  cover-crop 
rotation  in  a  young  orchard  has  been  used  by  the  author  with 
marked  success,  and  an  account  of  it  may  prove  of  value  to  those 
interested  in  the  subject  of  cover  crops  by  suggesting  other  rota- 
tions or  cropping  systems. 

The  first  and  second  years  the  cover  crop  was  rye ;  the  third 
year  medium  clover  was  sown  ;  the  fourth  and  fifth  years  rye  ;  the 
sixth  year  medium  clover ;  the  seventh  year  the  crop  of  the  pre- 
vious year  was  left  down  ;  the  eighth  year  rye  was  sown  ;  the 
ninth  and  tenth  years  medium  clover ;  the  eleventh  year  vetch 
and  rye ;  and  the  twelfth  year  buckwheat.  The  crops  were  sown 
each  year  between  July  1  5  and  July  30.  The  amount  of  seed  used 
in  each  case  was  slightly  more  than  that  recommended  for  these 
crops  under  field  conditions  : 

4  bu.  rye  per  acre 
30  lb.  medium  clover  per  acre 
50  lb.  vetch,  3  bu.  rye,  per  acre 

2  bu.  buckwheat  per  acre 

This  system  takes  for  granted  that  the  land  is  in  fair  tilth  and 
not  set  up  on  too  sharp  an  angle.   Rye  is  recommended  for  a  cover 


COVER  CROPS  97 

crop  in  the  younger  stages  of  the  orchard's  life  for  two  reasons  : 
first,  because  it  pumps  out  the  moisture  from  the  soil  better  than 
any  other  crop,  thereby  causing  the  young  trees  to  mature  their 
year's  growth  earlier  and  incur  less  winter  injury  ;  second,  it  is  a 
sure  crop,  giving  a  good  mass  for  a  soil  cover  and  greatly  improv- 
ing the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  by  adding  to  it  a  large  amount 
of  slowly  decaying  humus. 

Clover  and  vetches  are  better  adapted  for  cover  crops  in  an 
orchard  which  has  arrived  at  or  is  near  its  bearing  period.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  they  pump  less  water  from  the  soil  and  do 
not  injure  the  older  trees  by  overstimulation  so  much  as  they  do 
the  young  ones.  They  add  greatly  to  the  fertilizer  content  of  the 
soil,  thus  improving  its  physical  condition  without  decreasing  the 
actual  cost  of  plant-food  materials. 

Where  a  catch  crop  is  sown,  the  cover  crop  is  planted  in  the 
tree-clear  space  6  feet  wide  the  first  year  and  is  increased  in  width 
each  year.  This  is  because  the  catch  crop  occupies  the  rest  of  the 
land  late  in  the  season,  which  of  course  interferes  with  the  plant- 
ing and  growing  of  the  cover  crop.  Beginning  with  the  eighth 
year  the  catch  crop  should  be  discontinued  and  clean  culture  be 
practiced  from  this  time  on,  as  the  young  trees  require  all  the  space 
in  the  orchard  for  their  best  development. 

To  lengthen  the  twelve-year  system,  for  the  thirteenth  year  start 
again  at  the  eighth  year  and  continue  up  to  the  twelfth  year. 
Allow  the  cover  crop  of  clover  planted  in  the  ninth  year  (the  four- 
teenth year)  to  remain  through  the  next  (the  fifteenth)  year,  which 
will,  of  course,  exclude  clean  culture  that  year.  This  rest  is  bene- 
ficial to  both  trees  and  soil,  in  some  cases  being  the  needed  check 
to  the  formation  of  fruit  buds,  which  would  result  in  too  large  crops. 

Shade  crops.  The  use  of  shade  crops  in  orchards  has  been 
strongly  recommended  by  the  experiment  stations  of  the  Far  West. 
Many  orchardists  who  have  tried  such  crops  have  met  with  grati- 
fying success. 

The  purpose  of  a  shade  crop  is  to  shade  the  ground  during  the 
growing  season,  thereby  keeping  the  moisture  of  the  soil  uniform 
and  lowering  the  temperature  somewhat.  It  is  best  adapted  to  the 
irrigated  sections  of  the  country,  and  should  not  be  used  to  any 
extent  until  the  trees  come  into  bearing. 


98  THE  APPLE 

The  crops  used  for  shade  purposes  are  principally  legumes,  such 
as  alfalfa,  red  clover,  alsike  clover,  crimson  clover  ;  peas  and  vetches 
are  also  sometimes  used.  There  are  several  methods  of  handling 
shade  crops.  One  method  is  to  grow  the  crops  for  perhaps  two 
years,  then  plow  the  ground  and  keep  it  in  clean  tillage  for  at 
least  a  year,  when  it  is  reseeded  to  a  shade  crop.  Another  method 
is  to  cut  one  crop,  which  is  sometimes  put  in  the  barn  for  fodder, 
but  to  allow  the  second  to  go  to  seed,  this  new  seed  giving  a 
splendid  growth  after  the  land  has  been  disked  early  in  the  spring. 
This  system  of  reseeding  is  commonly  practiced  with  the  crimson 
and  red  clovers.  Another  method  is  to  mow  the  crop  frequently 
with  the  mowing  machine  and  allow  it  to  mat  down  and  decay  on 
the  ground.  Which  system  is  the  best  will  depend  on  climatic 
and  soil  conditions.  The  age  of  the  orchard,  the  type  of  trees,  etc. 
may  also  influence  the  choice  of  method.  The  time  of  planting 
the  shade  crop  will  depend  largely  on  local  conditions.  In  some 
sections  seed  can  be  sown  in  the  early  spring,  from  March  to 
May  ;  in  other  regions  July  is  a  better  time  to  seed. 

A  word  of  caution  is  necessary  where  shade  crops  are  to  be  used. 
Watch  your  soil  very  carefully,  and  investigate  its  moisture  content 
thoroughly.  If  the  soil  becomes  very  dry  the  orchard  may  be 
injured.  When  irrigating,  be  sure  to  allow  enough  water  for 
thorough,  deep  work. 


16^%   '^  ^W-^°  -q^°^\ 


CHAPTER  XII 
FERTILIZING 

Among  horticulturists  and  fruit  growers  there  is  much  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  the  necessity  and  value  of  fertilizer  applica- 
tions to  apple  trees.  Within  a  short  time  two  sets  of  experiments 
in  adjoining  states  have  demonstrated  opposite  theories. 

Advantages  and  disadvantages.  Some  of  the  reasons  most 
commonly  advanced  against  the  use  of  artificial  fertilizer  for 
apple  trees  are  as  follows  : 

i.  The  long  growing  season. 

2.  The  long  preparation  stage  before  fruiting. 

3.  The  deep-rooting  habit. 

4.  The  well-known  years  of  scarcity  of  fruit,  called  "  off  years." 

5 .  The  high  water  content  of  the  fruit. 

Some  of  these  reasons  seem  to  offer  more  advantages  than  dis- 
advantages for  proper  fertilization.  In  the  case  of  the  long  prep- 
aration stage  before  fruiting,  where  no  rotation  is  practiced,  the 
trees  lock  up  in  the  wood  and  leaves  considerable  quantities  of 
plant  food,  a  fact  which  argues  more  for  than  against  fertilization. 
As  to  the  deep-rooting  habit  of  apple  trees,  this  has  been  greatly 
overestimated,  and  is  not  true  of  all  locations  nor  of  all  soils.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  largest  number  of  feeding  roots  are  in 
the  surface  foot  of  soil ;  there  is,  however,  a  great  variation  in 
soils,  those  which  are  loose  and  dry  permitting  penetration  of  the 
roots  to  a  great  depth. 

It  has  been  discovered  that  frequently  the  so-called  off  years 
may  be  largely  done  away  with  by  proper  applications  of  fertilizer 
and  other  necessary  ingredients.  The  occurrence  of  off  years 
would  therefore  seem  to  constitute  evidence  for  the  use  of  arti- 
ficial fertilizers.  As  to  the  high  water  content  of  apples,  the  fruit 
averages  fully  85  per  cent  of  water,  but  in  the  development  of  the 
remaining  15  per  cent  of  dry  matter  more  pounds  of  actual  plant 

99 


IOO  THE  APPLE 

food  are  taken  up  from  the  soil  by  an  average  crop  of  apples  than 
by  a  similar  crop  of  wheat. 

Mineral  constituents.  A  fairly  exact  knowledge  of  the  composi- 
tion of  the  fruit  and  vegetative  parts  of  the  apple  tree  is  desirable 
for  many  reasons.  One  needs  to  know  how  the  various  plant-food 
elements  are  made  use  of,  and  how  their  presence  or  absence  in 
the  soil  affects  the  different  parts  of  the  apple.  It  is  also  useful 
to  be  able  to  detect  by  diagnosis  malnutrition  in  the  orchard,  and 
to  observe  and  interpret  the  results  of  plant-food  applications. 
This  knowledge,  in  connection  with  the  known  facts  as  to  the 
approximate  annual  weights  of  fruit,  wood,  and  leaves  produced 
by  a  mature  tree  under  average  conditions,  will  enable  one  to 
determine  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  the  annual  draft  on 
plant  food  exerted  by  a  single  tree  or  by  an  acre  of  trees. 

The  following  table  is  obtained  from  a  combination  of  the 
results  of  many  investigations. 


Dry  Sub- 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 

Potash 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Iron 

Total  Ash 

stance 

Acid 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Wood     .    . 

5~-3 

•63 

.20 

■37 

1.6 

.24 

•°3 

3-35 

Leaves   .    . 

34-5 

2.15 

•45 

i-35 

2.48 

•75 

.125 

8.7 

Fruit  .    .    . 

15.4 

4-3 

•17 

1.1 1 

.08 

.09 

.02 

-•35 

By  using  the  above  table  and  the  following  average  weights  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  tree,  just  how  much  of  the  component 
parts  of  a  tree  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potash,  etc.  can  be 
easily  ascertained. 


Green  Weight  in  Pounds 


Average  wood  and  roots  per  tree 
Average  leaves  per  tree  .  .  . 
Average  fruit  per  tree     .... 


108 
1 1 1 
700 


From  these  figures  the  following  table  of  pounds  per  acre 
of  the  different  constituents  is  obtained.  For  convenience  in 
figuring,  the  basis  of  weight  has  been  made  a  yearly  production, 


FERTILIZING 


in  round  figures,  of   ioo  pounds  each   of   wood  and  leaves  and 
700  pounds  of  fruit,  with  35  trees  to  the  acre. 


Fruit 


Total 


Annual  weights 
Nitrogen  .  .  . 
Phosphoric  acid 
Potash  .... 
Lime  .... 
Magnesia  .  .  . 
Iron 


35°° 

11 -3 
3-6 
6.6 

29.1 

44 
•5 


3500 
25.6 

5-3 
15-9 
29.5 

8.9 


24500 
16.2 
6.4 
41.5 
3- 
3-4 


3'Soo 
53-i 
15-3 

64. 

61.6 

16.7 


It  is  evident  that  important  amounts  of  plant  food  are  annually 
removed  from  the  soil  by  an  apple  orchard,  and  that  unless  ade- 
quate returns  are  made,  plant  food  will  become  a  limiting  factor 
in  any  vigorous  and  productive  orchard. 

Functions  and  effects  of  minerals.  We  shall  attempt  to  show  the 
various  functions  and  characteristic  effects  of  the  more  important 
of  these  minerals  and  of  nitrogen  in  the  apple  plant.  We  do  not 
yet  have  an  exact  knowledge  of  all  the  functions  of  these  elements 
in  the  plant.  Therefore  the  following  summary  is  not  complete, 
but  the  functions  given  are  the  commonly  accepted  ones. 

Nitrogen.  This  element,  with  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  serves 
chiefly  in  the  formation  of  protein  and  protoplasm.  It  therefore 
occurs  largely  in  the  living  areas  —  such  as  the  cambium  layers,  leaf 
mesophyll,  and  growing  tips  —  and  in  seeds  and  other  food-storage 
organs.  Like  phosphorus,  it  migrates  very  strongly  from  the  older, 
more  mature,  or  dying  tissues  of  plants  to  the  living  portions  and 
toward  the  heads  or  upper  portions.  Like  potash  and  soda,  the 
assimilated  nitrogen  is  apparently  subject  to  considerable  losses  as 
maturity  is  reached  and  passed,  due  to  migration  and  to  the  action 
of  rain  and  dew. 

In  general,  the  effect  of  nitrogen  applications  is  to  produce  a 
strong  vegetative  growth  and  to  retard  greatly  the  maturity  and 
ripening  of  most  plants. 

Phosphorus.  This  element  is  an  essential  constituent  of  nucleo- 
proteids  and  renders  their  formation  possible.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  for  cell  divisions  and  for  all  new  growth,  and  in  its 


102  THE  APPLE 

absence  these  processes  stop.  Its  absence  also  results  in  an  ac- 
cumulation of  fats  and  albumin.  Its  presence  has  been  shown  to 
be  necessary  for  the  formation  of  lecithin  and  chlorophyll.  Lecithin 
is  a  semisoluble  substance  regularly  accompanying  fatty  matter, 
but  physiologically  superior  to  it  because  of  its  partial  solubility ; 
it  probably  aids  in  respiration,  being  the  form  into  which  fat 
must  be  changed  to  become  combustible  in  the  protoplasm. 


V\c.  44.    Commercial  fertilizer  used 

These  trees  received  nitrogen  and  phosphate  and  produced  721  bushels  per  acre  in  1909. 

They  are  identical  with  the  trees  in  Fig.  45,  except  for  fertilization.    (After  Pennsylvania 

State  College) 

As  might  be  expected,  there  is  a  large  demand  for  phosphorus 
in  the  new  growth,  and  consequently  an  enormous  migration  from 
the  older  portions  to  the  younger.  As  with  most  other  minerals, 
during  maturity  and  the  later  stages  of  plant  growth  there  may  be 
a  considerable  loss  of  assimilated  phosphoric  acid,  as  a  result  of 
rains  and  dew. 

In  experiments  made  in  England  phosphoric  acid  was  found  to 
promote  root  development  very  markedly,  but  not  exactly  in  pro- 
portion to  its  supply,  as  there  is  an  unknown  factor  affecting  re- 
sults. It  is  very  effective  in  promoting  tillering  and,  consequently, 
bud  formation  in  stem  and  roots. 


FERTILIZING 


[03 


Potassium.  Some  potassium  salts  are  necessary  for  every  living 
cell.  They  seem  to  be  especially  essential  to  starch  formation. 
Potash  also  seems  to  be  connected  with  protein  formation  — 
which  may  be  a  similar  process  —  and  with  protein  accumula- 
tions. Those  parts  in  which  carbohydrates  are  transported  are 
also  reported  from  many  sources  to  be  relatively  rich  in  potash, 
though  this  does  not  prove  conclusively  any  vital  connection. 


Fir..  45.    No  fertilizer  used 

These    trees,   adjoining   those  in  the  preceding   figure,  received  nothing  and  produced 

156  bushels  per  acre  in  1909.  Variety,  Baldwin.  Compare  with  Fig.  44.   (After  Pennsylvania 

State  College) 

Under  normal  conditions  potash  is  likely  to  be  of  special  impor- 
tance as  a  fertilizer  where  carbohydrates  are  the  important  ele- 
ment in  the  crop  ;  for  example,  sugar  beets,  mangels,  and  probably 
fruits. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  relation  of  potash  to 
the  maturing  of  the  plant,  some  maintaining  that  it  hastens  matu- 
rity and  others  that  its  usual  effect  is  to  prolong  growth.  Those 
holding  the  latter  view  consider  it  especially  effective  on  the  lighter 
soils  and  in  dry  seasons.  The  plant  habit  of  closing  up  growth 
on  the  occurrence  of  malnutrition  of  any  sort  probably  accounts 


104  THE  APPLE 

for  some  of  the  divergence  of  opinion.  No  marked  effect  either 
way  has  yet  appeared  in  the  author's  apple  experiments,  though 
perhaps  the  tendency  has  been  to  hasten  maturity. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  where  nitrate  of  soda  has  been  used 
as  nitrogen  carrier  in  the  Rothamsted  *  work,  no  sign  of  potash  fail- 
ure has  been  observed  in  twelve  years.  This  is  taken  to  indicate 
that  sodium  liberates  potash  in  the  soil. 

While  potash  shows  relatively  little  migratory  tendency,  it  is 
nevertheless  subject  to  marked  losses  as  the  plants  mature  (see 
the  discussion  of  phosphorus). 

Calcium.  The  use  of  lime  in  agricultural  practice  is  very  old. 
In  many  soils  it  is  an  important  factor,  and,  because  of  the  large 
demand  of  most  plants  for  it,  its  need  is  often  felt  very  early. 
The  part  that  it  plays  in  the  nutrition  of  plants  is  variable  —  in 
some  soils  it  merely  modifies  environment,  while  in  others  its 
action  is  physiological.  Lime  accumulates  in  plants  chiefly  in  the 
leaves,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  wood.  Etiolated,  diseased,  or 
albino  leaves  contain  much  less  lime  than  healthy  green  leaves, 
the  difference  in  amount  sometimes  being  more  than  half.  Since 
it  may  be  largely  or  entirely  absent  from  young  plant  organs,  it 
does  not  seem  to  be  essential  to  the  young  plants,  but  is  useful  in 
certain  special  processes.  In  the  older  plants,  however,  it  has 
apparently  acquired  such  importance  in  these  special  functions 
that  its  absence  may  indirectly  affect  one  or  all  of  the  vital 
activities  and  thus  obstruct  metabolism. 

The  special  function  that  has  been  most  clearly  associated  with 
calcium  is  concerned  with  the  solution  and  transfer  of  starch  as 
contrasted  with  the  starch-building  role  of  potash.  The  function 
of  lime  in  acid  neutralization  in  plants  is  now  considered  less 
essential  than  formerly,  since  the  resulting  calcium  oxalates  are 
found  to  be  absent  in  many  plants. 

The  functions  of  lime,  in  its  soil-modifying  capacity,  are  as 
follows:  (i)  It  corrects  acidity.  Most  plants  prefer  slightly  alka- 
line soils,  but  the  exact  preference  of  the  apple  is  not  known. 
(2)  It  liberates  other  nutrients.  The  liberation  should  not  be  too 
fast,  however,  or  losses  may  occur  by  leaching.  This  "  whip  " 
action  has  sometimes  been  considered  the  only  function  of  lime. 

1  The  Rothamsted  Experimental  Station,  Ilarpenden,  England. 


FERTILIZING  105 

(3)  It  tends  to  preserve  nitrogen.  (4)  It  flocculates  heavy  soils. 
(5)  It  has  some  fungicidal  and  insecticidal  value.  It  is  often  effec- 
tive against  snails.  (6)  It  corrects  the  toxic  action  of  magnesium 
and  also  of  many  other  bases  when  they  become  present  in 
injurious  amounts. 

This  sixth  function  of  lime  may  frequently  be  an  important  one, 
and  opens  up  a  question  that  has  not  received  the  attention  it  de- 
serves in  connection  with  crop  fertilization  in  general.  This  question 


Fig.  46.    Manure  versus  nothing 

Row  on  left,  receiving  stable  manure,  third  year,  produced  373.S  bushels  per  acre.    Row  on 
right,  receiving  nothing,  produced  27.9  bushels  per  acre.    Variety,  York  Imperial.    (After 
Pennsylvania  State  College) 

is  that  of  the  toxicity  of  the  salts  of  various  bases,  especially  those 
of  the  heavy  metals,  when  present  alone  in  solution  or  when  dis- 
tinctly predominating  in  solutions  otherwise  weak.  Related  to  this 
is  the  fact  that  the  observed  toxicity  of  these  salts  may  often  be 
reduced  or  entirely  neutralized  by  the  addition  of  other  bases.  This 
was  first  discovered  in  connection  with  magnesium  and  calcium 
about  1883,  but  it  has  since  been  found  true  of  salts  of  various 
bases  or  metals,  such  as  sodium,  potassium,  strontium,  barium,  iron, 
manganese,  nickel,  cobalt,  silver,  mercury  and  the  NH4  radical  in 
ammonium  compounds.    The  toxic  action  of  these  salts  has  been 


106  THE  APPLE 

found  to  exist  above  certain  concentrations,  often  in  a  very  marked 
degree,  and  the  neutralizing  power  of  other  bases,  especially  lime, 
has  been  shown  always  to  follow  their  addition.  The  strong  toxic 
action  of  copper  salts  in  solution  has  long  been  known  and  utilized 
in  spray  materials.  The  neutralizing  action  of  lime  additions  in  these 
cases  also  is  significant  and  may  be  similar  to  its  action  in  nutrient 
solutions. 

As  in  the  case  of  magnesia,  the  relation  of  lime  applications 
to  maturity  in  plants  and  to  the  fertilization  of  orchard  fruits  is 
apparently  not  definitely  known. 

Magnesium.  This  element  is  required  in  the  development  of 
all  plant  parts,  but  is  considered  especially  important  in  the  forma- 
tion of  seeds  and  proteins.  Its  distribution  and  importance  is 
apparently  similar  to  that  of  potassium.  It  can  perform  its  proper 
function,  however,  only  in  the  presence  of  calcium  salts,  since, 
with  the  exception  of  very  few  plants,  it  is  strongly  toxic  in  all 
other  cases. 

The  action  of  magnesium  is  indirect ;  that  is,  it  does  not  enter 
directly  into  the  composition  of  plant  parts  or  tissues,  but  apparently 
serves  only  as  a  carrier  of  the  phosphorus  needed  in  their  formation. 
This  theory  is  strengthened  by  the  fact  of  the  relatively  easy  de- 
composition of  the  secondary  magnesium  phosphate  into  territory 
and  free  phosphoric  acid,  a  dissociation  which  would  naturally  im- 
mediately precede  assimilation.  Magnesia  is  found  always  to  increase 
when  rapid  development  is  taking  place,  and  comparatively  little 
of  it  will  serve  for  extended  physiological  operations,  a  fact  which 
serves  to  corroborate  the  theory  just  stated. 

In  leaves  and  wood  the  magnesia  content  is  always  noticeably 
lower  than  the  lime  content,  while  the  reverse  is  true  of  seeds 
and  fruits  (see  tables,  p.  ioo).  Magnesium  also  migrates  strongly 
to  the  growing  parts,  in  general  "  following  the  proteids,  like  the 
phosphates."  Its  exact  relation  to  fruit  development  is  not  known, 
though  the  results  of  the  experiment  in  Massachusetts  suggest 
its  possible  value  in  this  connection.  The  relatively  high  amount 
present  in  fruits,  as  well  as  its  apparent  relation  to  phosphatic 
compounds,  is  also  suggestive.  It  seems  that  nothing  is  known 
concerning  its  relation  to  the  hastening  or  retarding  of  maturity 
in  crops. 


FERTILIZING  1 07 

Iron.  Very  little  is  known  of  the  part  that  iron  plays  in  plant 
metabolism,  although  it  is  required  in  small  amounts  by  all  plants. 
It  was  formerly  thought  to  be  a  constituent  of  chlorophyll,  but  this 
was  shown  by  Molisch l  not  to  be  true.  Its  presence  is,  however,  still 
considered  indispensable  to  the  formation  of  chlorophyll,  its  action 
apparently  being  one  of  conditioning  the  nature  of  protoplasmic 
activity.  A  small  portion  of  the  iron  in  plants  is  apparently  held  in 
the  form  of  organic  compounds,  possibly  entering  into  the  structure 
of  the  chloroplastids. 

As  a  fertilizer,  Ville  2  reports  that  a  spray  of  2-per-cent  solution 
of  iron  sulphate  upon  young  apples  and  pears  hastened  the  ripen- 
ing and  enlarged  the  fruits.  To  the  writer  this  seems  rather  fanci- 
ful, though  a  serious  attempt  has  been  made  to  explain  it  on  the 
ground  of  stimulation  of  the  protoplasm  and  increased  production 
of  chloroplasts  in  the  epidermis. 

The  value  of  iron  applications  to  the  soil  in  increasing  the  color 
of  fruit,  especially  of  apples,  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable 
discussion  and  some  experimenting  among  horticulturists.  The 
amount  of  iron  in  the  annual  draft  of  apple  trees  (as  shown  in  the 
table  on  page  10 1)  is  worthy  of  note.  But  this  mineral  is  probably 
always  available  in  required  amounts  in  any  agricultural  soil,  so 
that  additional  applications  could  scarcely  be  expected  to  have  any 
marked  direct  influence. 

What  to  use.  It  is  impossible  to  give  definite  advice  in  regard 
to  the  best  fertilizers  for  all  kinds  of  soils.  The  poorer  soils  need 
a  greater  amount  than  the  more  productive  soils  of  all  the  ingredi- 
ents mentioned,  but  especially  of  nitrogen.  Requirements,  how- 
ever, will  vary  with  the  variety  of  apple  grown  or  some  other  factor. 
Voorhees  3  recommends  a  basic  formula  of  equal  parts  of  muriate  of 
potash,  acid  phosphate,  and  fine  ground  bone,  with  the  addition  of 
nitrogen  in  the  form  of  either  barnyard  manure  or  nitrate  fertilizers, 
or  secured  through  leguminous  cover  crops. 

Professor  Sears 4  recommends  a  fertilizer  consisting  of  1  ounce 
of  nitrate  of  soda,    |  pound   of   high-grade  sulphate  of  potash, 

1  Hans  Molisch,  scientist,  Zeltgasse  2,  Wien,  Austria. 

-  Georges  Ville,  scientist  and  author,  Le  Grand  Bilbarteault,  France  (1S76). 
8  E.  R.  Voorhees,  ex-director  of  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
4  F.  B.  Sears,  pomologist,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 


108  THE  APPLE 

and  |  pound  of  basic  slag  or  acid  phosphate  per  tree,  to  be  applied 
each  year  during  the  first  few  years  of  a  tree's  life.  For  a  bearing 
orchard  he  would  use  500  pounds  of  basic  slag  or  acid  phosphate 
and  300  pounds  of  high-grade  sulphate  of  potash  per  acre.  Hale,1 
the  peach  king,  uses  for  bearing  orchards  1000  pounds  of  bone  and 
400  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash. 

The  mixture  of  bone  and  potash  is  a  common  one  among  fruit 
growers,  although  the  proportions  given  by  different  growers  may 
vary.    Van  Slyke2  recommends  the  following  formula  : 

Cottonseed  meal 100  lb. 

Raw  ground  bone 100  lb. 

Acid  phosphate 100  lb. 

Muriate  of  potash 1 00  lb. 

In  the  western  part  of  New  York,  especially  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Buffalo  and  in  the  Oswego  region,  orchardists  are  making  heavy 
applications  of  barnyard  manure,  —  from  10  to  25  tons  per  acre,  and 
in  some  cases  more,  —  and  claim  that  excellent  results  are  secured. 

Stewart,3  after  years  of  study  and  experimenting,  recommends 
a  very  good  formula. 

A  GENERAL  FERTILIZER  FOR  APPLE  ORCHARDS 
(Amounts  per  Acre  for  Bearing  Trees) 


Nitrogen  30  Pounds  (N) 

Phosphoric  Acid  50  Pounds  (PjOj) 

Potash  25  to  50  Pounds 
(K20) 

Carried  in 

Carried  in 

Carried  in 

100  lb.  nitrate  and 

350  lb.  acid  phosphate  or  in 

50  to  100  lb.  muriate 

150  lb.  dried  blood 

200  lb.  bone  meal  or  in 

or  in 

or  in 

300  lb.  basic  slag 

100  to  200  lb.  of  low- 

150  lb.  ammonium 

grade  sulphate 

sulphate 

This  table  means  that  a  fertilizer  carrying  about  30  pounds  of 
actual  nitrogen,  50  pounds  of  actual  phosphoric  acid  (P205),  and 


1  J.  II.  Hale,  prominent  orchardist,  Glastonbury,  Connecticut. 

2  L.    L.   Van   Slyke,   chemist,   New   York    Agricultural    Experiment    Station, 
Geneva. 

3  J.  P.  Stewart,  horticulturist,  Pennsylvania  State  Experiment  Station,  State 
College. 


FERTILIZING  109 

from  25  to  50  pounds  of  actual  potash  (K,0)  should  be  applied 
on  each  acre  of  bearing  trees.  Where  potash  is  not  known  to  be 
lacking  in  the  soil,  the  smaller  amount  may  be  used,  and  after  a 
little  testing  it  may  even  be  found  wise  to  omit  it  altogether.  With 
the  smaller  amount  of  potash  the  essentials  of  the  present  com- 
bination are  carried  in  500  pounds  of  a  6-10-5  fertilizer  or  its 
equivalent.  In  the  ordinary  ready-mixed  fertilizers  the  nitrogen  is 
likely  to  be  carried  in  ammonium  sulphate,  with  which  some  liming 
may  be  necessary  if  many  applications  are  made,  and  especially  if 
leguminous  cover  crops  or  permanent  covers  are  to  be  grown.  In 
either  special  or  homemade  mixtures  the  various  elements  may  be 
carried  in  any  of  the  materials  indicated  in  the  table. 

Time  and  method  of  application.1  The  time  of  application  of  the 
fertilizer  we  believe  to  be  of  distinct  importance,  especially  in  the 
case  of  nitrates.  While  our  evidence  on  this  point  is  by  no  means 
complete,  we  have  found  indications  that  nitrates  can  be  applied 
too  early  in  the  season  and  thus  be  wholly  lost  to  the  trees.  There 
is  also  evidence  to  support  the  theory  that  distinct  harm  may  result 
from  their  application  about  fruit-setting  time  —  especially  in  the 
case  of  the  peach  tree.  We  feel,  therefore,  that  the  nitrates  should 
be  applied  not  earlier  than  petal-fall  in  apples  and  probably  not  later 
than  the  middle  of  July.  In  general,  about  the  middle  of  this  period 
should  be  all  right,  though  some  of  our  most  striking  results  have 
come  from  applications  made  as  late  as  July  8. 

In  the  case  of  the  mineral  ingredients,  with  their  lower  solubility 
and  slower  action,  the  time  of  application  is  less  important.  Some 
careful  orchardists  engaged  in  commercial  work  apply  phosphates 
and  potash  to  their  peach  orchards  in  the  fall,  and  believe  that  this 
gives  best  results.  Thus  far,  however,  we  have  felt  that  the  time 
of  application  for  the  minerals  is  of  relatively  little  importance,  since 
they  are  quickly  fixed  in  the  soil  in  any  case,  and  do  not  leach 
readily.  We  therefore  apply  them  with  the  nitrogen  at  the  time 
considered  best  for  the  latter.  Manure  also  can  be  applied  at  almost 
any  time,  except  possibly  late  summer  or  the  fall,  without  danger 
of  loss  or  other  ill  effects.  Attention  should  be  given  to  chapter 
on  manure. 

1  From  the  report  of  experiments  conducted  by  J.  P.  Stewart,  horticulturist, 
Pennsylvania  State  College. 


no  THE  APPLE 

The  method  of  fertilizing  that  I  have  used  for  several  years  and 
recommend  is  as  follows  : 

First  year  \  cup  per  tree  of  formula 

Second  year  i  cup  per  tree  of  formula  i  oo  lb.  nitrate  of  soda, 

Third  year  2  to  3  cups  per  tree  of  formula     1-  200  lb.  acid  phosphate, 

Fourth  year  3  to  5  cups  per  tree  of  formula     200  lb.  muriate  of  potash. 

Fifth  year  3  to  5  cups  per  tree  of  formula     J 

Sixth  year  8  to  10  tons  manure  per  acre. 

Seventh  year  300  lb.  bone  meal,  200  lb.  muriate  of  potash  per  acre. 

Eighth  year  25  bu.  lime,  300  lb.  bone  meal,  200  lb.  muriate  of  potash 
per  acre. 

Ninth  year  300  lb.  bone  meal. 

Tenth  year  S  to  1  o  tons  manure  per  acre. 

Eleventh  year  200  lb.  bone  meal,  100  lb.  acid  phosphate,  200  lb.  muriate  of 
potash  per  acre. 

Twelfth  year  200  lb.  bone  meal,  100  lb.  acid  phosphate,  200  lb.  muriate  of 
potash  per  acre. 

Thirteenth  year  same  as  eighth. 

Fourteenth  year  same  as  ninth. 

Fifteenth  year  same  as  tenth. 

Sixteenth  year  same  as  eleventh. 

Seventeenth  year  same  as  twelfth. 

Eighteenth  year  same  as  eighth,  and  so  on. 

Since  other  formulas  have  been  used  with  satisfactory  results 
by  orchardists  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  it  is  evident  that 
each  person  must  determine  for  himself  the  requirements  of  his 
own  orchard. 

The  actual  needs  of  an  orchard.  If  one  really  wishes  to  answer 
the  question  of  how  to  fertilize  his  orchard,  he  can  do  so  by  follow- 
ing a  simple  test  plan.  One  such  plan  of  considerable  merit  is 
given  by  Stewart.  A  typical  part  of  the  orchard  should  be  selected 
for  the  experiment,  and  should  include  not  less  than  five  average 
trees  of  the  same  variety  and  age  for  each  plot.  All  the  trees 
should  be  labeled  and  carefully  measured  at  a  fixed  point  on  the 
trunk,  and  definite  records  of  their  growth  and  yields  kept  for  at 
least  three  years.  Often  a  good  indication  of  the  orchard's  needs 
can  be  obtained  in  less  than  three  years,  but  the  experiment  should 
cover  this  amount  of  time  at  least,  and  more  if  necessary. 

The  same  time  and  methods  of  application  and  other  precau- 
tions should  be  followed  as  previously  described.    The  materials 


FERTILIZING  1 1 1 

are  indicated  here  in  amounts  per  bearing  tree  instead  of  per  acre, 
and  a  corresponding  reduction  should  be  made  for  younger  trees  ; 
in  other  words,  if  only  a  third  of  the  ground  is  to  be  covered,  then 
only  about  a  third  of  these  amounts  should  be  used. 
The  plan.    For  mature  trees  in  bearing  : 

Plot  i.  Check,  untreated. 

Plot  2.  Nitrate,  z\  lb. ;  dried  blood,  3^  lb. ;  acid  phosphate,  1  o  lb. 

Plot  3.  Nitrate,  z\  lb. ;  dried  blood,  31  lb.  ;  potash,  2  lb. 

Plot  4.  Acid  phosphate,  10  lb. ;  potash,  2  lb. 

Plot  5.  Check,  untreated. 

Plot  6.  Nitrate,  i\  lb.;  dried  blood,  3I  lb.;  acid  phosphate,  10  11).; 
potash,  2  lb. 

Plot  7.  Same  as  No.  6  plus  lime,  12  to  25  lb. 

Plot  8.  Manure,  400  lb. 

Plot  9.  Check,  untreated. 

An  observance  of  the  general  precautions  given  above,  together 
with  the  exercise  of  proper  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  grower, 
is  sufficient  to  carry  this  plan  to  a  successful  conclusion  within  a 
few  years  and  definitely  settle  the  fertilizer  needs  of  any  ordinary 
orchard.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  an  orchard  may 
not  show  the  need  of  a  fertilizer  when  young,  but  may  develop 
this  need  later,  especially  when  heavy  bearing  is  reached.  This 
means  that  cases  which  appear  negative  at  one  time  may  often 
need  further  tests  and  observations  later. 

Method  of  application.  The  best  and  most  general  method  of 
applying  the  fertilizer  seems  to  be  to  scatter  it  broadcast  over  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  taking  care  not  to  get  it  too  close  to  the  tree 
trunks,  where  there  are  few  absorbent  roots,  and  extending  the 
applications  well  out  beyond  the  spread  of  the  branches.  To  con- 
form closely  to  the  distribution  of  the  feeding  roots,  the  rate  of 
application  should  be  heaviest  in  the  central  part  of  this  area  ;  that 
is,  under  the  outer  two  thirds  of  the  spread  of  the  branches. 

The  fertilizer  may  either  be  left  on  the  surface,  to  be  washed  in 
by  the  rains,  or  be  harrowed  or  lightly  plowed  into  the  soil.  Some- 
times the  fertilizer  is  distributed  with  a  grain  drill  or  fertilizer 
distributor,  but  it  is  more  often  applied  by  hand,  in  the  manner  of 
some  grains,  from  a  pail  held  in  the  crook  of  the  arm.  The  more 
convenient  method  of  application  should  be  used  by  the  orchardist. 


112  THE  APPLE 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  fertilizer  applied 
in  any  given  season  cannot  affect  materially  the  yield  of  that  year, 
since  the  fruit  buds  are  formed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  preceding 
season.  Important  results  should  not  be  expected  before  the 
following  season  at  the  earliest,  and  may  not  be  evident  until 
considerably  later. 

Trees  that  have  been  neglected  are  apt  to  show  results  much 
quicker  than  those  in  thrifty  condition.  Probably  the  reason  will 
be  found  in  the  limitedness  of  their  previously  available  food 
supply,  and  in  the  sudden  release  from  their  state  of  starvation. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

CULTIVATION 

Statistics  from  the  different  parts  of  the  country  and  surveys  of 
the  orchards  throughout  all  the  apple-growing  regions  show  clearly 
that  it  is  the  clean-culture  method  of  apple  growing  that  predomi- 
nates. Perhaps  the  reasons  for  this  may  be  understood  better  after 
a  study  of  the  objects  of  cultivation. 

Objects  of  cultivation.  Cultivation  conserves  moisture.  Un- 
doubtedly the  most  important  single  function  of  cultivation  is  that 
of  conserving  the  moisture  of  the  soil.  Let  rain  fall  and  the  sun 
shine,  and  the  soil  forms  a  crust  which  allows  the  evaporation  of 
moisture,  thereby  robbing  the  soil  storehouse  of  its  great  treasure. 
It  can  be  easily  understood  how  this  moisture  is  lost  when  the  soil 
is  likened  to  a  collection  of  very  small  tubes,  all  ending  at  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  each  tube  containing  water  that  is  continually 
being  brought  up  to  the  surface  to  replace  that  which  is  taken  away 
by  evaporation,  either  by  the  sun's  rays  or  by  the  movement  of  the 
air.  As  soon  as  some  tool  breaks  up  the  ends  of  these  tubes,  the 
movement  of  water  almost  ceases  because  of  the  soil  blanket,  which 
has  been  effectively  placed  between  the  evaporating  medium  and 
the  tube  ends. 

Moisture  is  lost  not  only  from  the  crust  formed  on  the  soil  after 
a  rain  but  also  from  the  cracks  or  fissures  which  are  often  found 
in  the  soil  and  which  increase  the  exposed  surface.  An  orchard 
in  such  a  condition  is  in  need  of  serious  attention. 

Since  all  the  mineral  elements  are  taken  from  the  soil  in  a 
liquid  condition,  lack  of  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil  prevents 
the  plants  from  securing  food  through  their  roots.  Therefore,  no 
matter  how  rich  the  soil  is  in  the  necessary  plant-food  elements, 
—  potash,  phosphorus,  iron,  etc.,  and  even  the  evasive  nitrogen,  — 
they  are  of  no  value  to  the  plant  unless  sufficient  moisture  is  at 
the  same  time  available  in  the  soil. 


114 


THE  APPLE 


The  orchardist  who  wishes  to  conserve  the  maximum  amount 
of  soil  water  must  cultivate,  and  cultivate  thoroughly. 

Cultivation  promotes  drainage.  Compare  two  fields  during  a 
rain,  one  well  prepared  and  cultivated,  the  other  in  need  of  culture. 
The  latter,  because  its  soil  is  hard  and  not  in  good  physical  con- 
dition, absorbs  very  little  of  the  rain,  and  soon  a  stream  of  surface 
water  is  flowing  from  the  field  and  is  lost  to  it  forever.  In  con- 
trast to  this  the  soil  of  the  well-cultivated  field,  being  in  a  loose, 


Fig.  47.    A  fine  young  orchard,  well  cultivated.    (Bowker  Fertilizer  Company) 


more  or  less  porous  condition,  acts  like  a  sponge  and  seems  to  be 
ever  hungry  for  more  water.  It  is  only  in  the  heaviest  rains,  such 
as  cloud-bursts  or  long-continued  downpours,  that  the  cultivated 
field  ever  suffers  loss  of  water.  The  water  is  largely  retained  and 
stored  in  the  soil  by  proper  cultivation  following  the  rain,  thus 
furnishing  abundant  moisture  for  the  future  development  of  the 
tree.  Where  the  soil  is  underdrained  the  water  passes  slowly  down 
to  the  drains  and  the  excess  is  removed  through  this  medium. 

Surface-water  loss  means  not  only  water  loss,  but  soil,  manure, 
fertilizer,  and  humus  loss,  all  of  which  are  required  for  tree  and 


CI  I/riYATION 


115 


fruit  development.  The  farm  must  indeed  be  rich  that  can  stand 
this  drain  upon  its  plant-making  substance.  Moral  :  Cultivate 
and  save. 

Cultivation  releases  plant  food  in  the  soil.  The  action  involved 
in  frequent  cultivation  is  a  grinding  and  turning  of  the  soil  particles. 
By  this  process  portions  of  fertilizers  so  near  the  surface  that  they 
are  not  available  to  the  tree  roots  are  turned  under  and  placed  in 
a  more  suitable  position,  perhaps  being  dissolved  by  water  or  acted 


iCSPH^^M^B^Wrii^C^MBEJsBWB 

S^'*^*  -.  &^i  J*! 

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-■■■I. --  . '"»  *  '•"         '        "■         te        "_      .   -»**.'     ■' 

Fig.  48.    A  fine  old  orchard 

Modern  practices  were  used  in  this  orchard,  located  in  Albion,  in  the  midst  of  the  apple 
region  of  western  New  Vork 


upon  by  the  root  acids  or  broken  down  in  some  other  way  so  that 
they  may  be  absorbed. 

Soil  that  has  lain  dormant  for  years  is  sometimes  plowed  up 
and  fined  by  frequent  cultivations,  which  exposes  the  particles  of 
the  newer  soil  to  the  action  of  air,  root  acids,  bacterial  life,  and 
other  agencies,  thus  finally  making  available  the  food  elements 
and  thereby  increasing  the  total  available  food  supply  of  the  soil. 

Cultivation  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  The 
principal  work  of  improving  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  by 
cultivation  is  in  reducing  the  size  of  the  larger  lumps  of  earth, 
thus  making  the  soil  more  porous  and  increasing  the  amount  of 
air  that  can  be  admitted  into  it  and  also  the  amount  of  storage 


u6 


THE  APPLE 


space  for  water.  The  result  generally  is  an  increase  in  the  other 
actions  in  the  soil,  such  as  bacterial  action,  liberation  of  plant 
food,  and  the  like.  If,  in  addition,  coarse  material,  like  manure 
and  straw  or  cover  crops,  is  plowed  under,  thorough  incorporation 
of  this  material  into  the  soil  by  means  of  cultivation  will  decidedly 
improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  land. 

Cultivation  kills  weeds.  From  recent  experiments  carried  on 
by  the  government  it  has  been  ascertained  that  destruction  of  the 
weeds  in  the  neighborhood  of  cultivated  plants  is  of  the  utmost 


A  fine  piece  of  soil  mulch-work  in  a  Western  orchard.    (Oregon  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station) 

importance  ;  in  fact,  in  many  cases  it  is  the  only  requirement  for  a 
full  crop  that  compares  in  importance  with  the  thorough  cultivation 
of  crops.  Since  plants  which  we  call  weeds  are  robbers  of  the 
moisture  and  food  of  the  soil  and  of  sunlight,  we  can  readily  see 
that  their  elimination  must  be  beneficial. 

The  clean  culture  necessary  to  conserve  the  soil  moisture  or  to 
free  plant  food  would  quickly  eradicate  the  weeds  without  added 
expense  or  labor. 

Cultivation  improves  environment.  All  of  the  above  objects 
may  be  summed  up  in  one  —  improvement  of  the  environmental 


CULTIVATION 


117 


condition  of  the  tree.  As  proper  environment  is  the  prime  essential 
of  cultivated  plants,  it  seems  justifiable  to  state  that  "  cultivation 
is  one  of  the  fundamental  conditions  for  successful  and  profitable 
production  of  apples." 

Tools  for  cultivation.  Several  types  of  tools  used  in  cultiva- 
tion are  so  common  that  definite  mention  can  be  made  of  them, 
although  particular  advice  for  a  particular  location  is  impossible. 

Plows.  Landside  plows.  The  common  landside  plow  is  perhaps 
more  generally  used  than  any  other.    With  this  the  soil  may  one 


Hi 

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iPSpl 

A  tractor  drawing  double-action  cutaway  disk  harrow  and  spring-tooth  harrow  - 
cheap,  practical  way  to  fit  or  cultivate  an  orchard 


quick, 


year  be  turned  toward  the  tree  rows  and  close  to  them  with  a  dead 
furrow  halfway  between,  and  the  next  year  be  turned  away  from 
the  trees  by  the  backfurrow  method  ;  that  is,  by  throwing  the 
furrows  together  where  the  dead  furrow  was  left  the  year  before, 
which  will  leave  dead  furrows  near  the  rows  of  trees.  This  method 
may  be  followed  year  after  year.  However,  if  the  lay  of  the  land 
permits,  it  may  be  better  to  plow  east  and  west  for  two  years  and 
change  to  north  and  south  for  the  following  two  years,  then  east 
and  west  again,  and  so  on.  By  following  this  method  the  land 
will  be  kept  even,  or  "  true." 


n8 


THE  APPLE 


Sulky  plows.  Sulky  plows  —  walking,  riding,  landside,  and  rever- 
sible —  are  being  used  wherever  orchard  conditions  permit.  They 
may  be  used  in  the  method  of  plowing  just  described,  or  in  plow- 
ing toward  one  row  of  trees  and  leaving  a  dead  furrow  at  the 
next  row,  which  is  on  the  other  side  of  the  cultivated  strip,  the 
next  year  reversing  the  plowing. 

Gang  plows.  Gang  plows  have  been  used  in  many  large  or- 
chards to  economize  time.    The  size  varies  from  2  to  6  or  more 


Fig.  51.    A  good  type  of  orchard  tractor  harrowing 

plows  to  each  gang,  the  increase  in  size  being  due  to  the  intro- 
duction of  tractors  as  the  propelling  power.  Generally  these  gangs 
are  used  between  the  rows  of  trees,  the  furrows  being  turned  in 
one  direction,  thus  leaving  a  furrow  toward  the  row  of  trees  at 
the  left  and  a  dead  furrow  toward  the  row  of  trees  at  the  right, 
or  vice  versa.  The  advantages  of  the  tractor-gang  plowing  are 
a  saving  of  time,  more  uniform  work,  and  less  expense. 

A  few  orchardists  have  used  the  disk  plow  and  found  that 
where  the  land  is  fairly  free  from  stone  it  is  very  satisfactory. 
These  plows  may  be  used  in  any  of  the  methods  of  plowing  given 
above,  their  great  advantage  being  that  they  leave  the  turned  soil 
in  a  more  broken  condition,  thereby  aiding  the  work*  of  fining. 


CULTIVATION 


119 


Harrows.  Disk  harrows.  Disk  harrows  of  various  shapes  and 
makes  are  getting  to  be  much  used  as  coarse  harrows  to  follow 
plowing.  In  the  plain  disk  harrow  the  disks  are  concave,  their 
diameter  varying,  in  different  machines,  from  12  to  16  inches. 
Each  machine  has  a  lever  by  which  the  angle  of  the  disk  with 
the  line  of  draft  may  be  increased  or  lessened  as  desired. 

Cutaway  disk  harrows.  Cutaway  disk  harrows  are  similar  to 
those  just  described,  but  have  the  edges  of  each  disk  notched  or 


Fig.  52.    Another  good  orchard  tractor 
In  the  larger  orchards  tractors  are  demonstrating  their  great  practicability 


cut  in  or  cut  away.  This  notching  makes  it  possible  for  the  disks 
to  penetrate  deeper  into  the  soil  and  to  do  more  real  grinding 
than  the  plain  disks. 

Spading  disk  harrows.  The  spading  disk  harrow  is  a  machine 
having  disks  so  deeply  cut  in  that  they  resemble  blades.  The  work- 
ing of  this  machine  has  proved  satisfactory,  especially  on  smooth, 
practically  stone-free  land. 

All  of  these  machines  are  built  both  in  single  action  (that  is, 
having   one  row   of  disks  across   the  machine  divided  into  two 


120  THE  APPLE 

gangs  of  half  the  disks)  and  in  double  action  (having  two  rows 
of  disks  in  four  gangs).  In  the  latter  case  the  action  and  work 
of  each  machine  is  just  doubled. 

Spring-tooth  harrows.  On  very  rocky  land  no  tool  can  equal 
the  spring-tooth  harrow  for  effectiveness.  This  harrow  is  also  used 
on  other  kinds  of  soil,  and  often  where  another  tool  would  give 
better  results.  It  is  much  used  in  certain  sections  of  the  country, 
particularly  in  the  northeastern  states.  Its  action  is  of  the  drag  or 
smoothing  type,  but  by  means  of  its  springs  the  teeth,  when  they 
catch  onto  stones  or  stumps,  are  sprung  back  to  place  without  any 
loss  of  efficiency. 

Sulky  harrows.  Sulky  harrows  of  the  spring-tooth  type  and 
the  more  or  less  ridged  type  are  used  in  many  orchards  and  are 
quite  satisfactory  under  certain  conditions.  It  seems  to  the  writer, 
however,  that  in  general  other  tools  would  prove  better. 

Smoothing  harrows.  Smoothing  harrows  are  of  various  types. 
The  ordinary  spike-tooth  harrow  offers  many  advantages  to  the 
orchardist,  principally  in  the  fact  that  its  widespreading  range 
permits  of  harrowing  considerable  land  in  a  short  time.  Another 
advantage  is  its  double  character  of  grinder  and  smoother.  On 
each  machine  there  should  be  a  lever  or  some  other  arrangement 
whereby  the  slant  of  the  teeth  can  be  regulated,  for  often  the 
teeth  should  be  set  back  so  that  only  shallow  surface  tillage  will  be 
given,  while  at  other  times  the  teeth  should  be  straight,  so  as  to 
cut  deeply  into  the  soil. 

Acme  harrows.  The  Acme  harrow  is  another  of  the  harrows 
which  smooth  and  grind  the  soil  that  has  met  with  general  ap- 
proval by  those  who  have  used  it.  The  machine  is  6  or  8  feet  wide 
and  consists  of  a  gang  of  blades  turned  something  like  the  mold- 
board  of  a  plow.  The  grinding  is  regulated  to  different  depths  and 
consists  of  turning  the  soil  somewhat  as  the  plow  turns  a  furrow. 
This  harrow  can  cover  a  large  amount  of  surface  in  a  day,  and  can 
be  run  quite  close  to  the  trees,  thus  saving  hand  labor. 

The  Kimball  cultivator.  The  Kimball  cultivator  is  another 
smoothing  harrow  that  has  met  with  approval,  especially  in  the 
West.  It  is  made  in  nine  sizes — from  the  4.} -foot  size  for  the 
small  farm  to  the  17-foot  size  for  the  larger  fields.  The  frame  of 
the  machine  is  of  fir,  the  ends  being  provided  with  fenders,  which 


CULTIVATION 


121 


prevent  the  knives  from  striking  the  trees  and  allow  much  closer 
work  around  them.  The  blades  are  concaved  on  the  upper  side 
and  straight  on  the  lower,  and  have  a  peculiar  turn  which  is  of 
advantage  to  the  working  of  the  machine.  In  using  the  cultivator 
the  driver  stands  in  the  center  of  the  draftboard  over  the  knives, 
and  guides  it  by  stepping  to  the  left  or  the  right,  as  the  occasion 
requires.  If  anything  adheres  to  or  gathers  on  the  knives,  the 
driver  steps  forward  on  the  draftboard  and  tilts  the  handle 
forward,  thus  raising  the  knives  and  freeing  them  of  litter. 

Other  harrows  are  being  used  in  various  sections  with  success. 
In  some  places  one-horse  cultivators  are  used  in  cooperation  with 
the  harrows,  especially  near 
the  trees.  These  cultiva- 
tors are  so  well  known  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  men- 
tion them  in  detail. 

Method  and  time  of  cul- 
tivation. As  a  rule  the 
same  general  system  of 
cultivation  is  followed 
throughout  the  country. 
Plowing  usually  takes 
place  early  in  the  spring, 
the  orchardist  waiting  only 
until  his  soil  is  in  condition.  After  the  plowing,  some  of  the 
coarser-working  harrows  are  used,  such  as  the  disk  or  the  spring- 
tooth.  If  good  work  is  to  be  done,  these  machines  are  lapped  half 
their  width  each  time  they  are  drawn  across  the  plot.  Sometimes 
the  harrows  are  drawn  first  in  the  direction  of  the  furrows,  and 
then  across  the  furrows.  The  smoothing  type  of  harrow  follows 
quickly,  and  the  soil  is  further  fined  and  a  mulch  of  loose  earth 
established.  This  mulch  is  maintained,  until  the  cover  crop  is 
sown  in  August,  by  frequent  cultivations,  especially  following  each 
rain,  and  if  no  rain  occurs,  once  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks. 

The  young  orchard.  Cultivation  in  the  young  orchard  may  be 
different  from  that  among  the  older  trees.  Plow  deeply  and  near 
the  young  trees,  in  order  to  force  the  roots  to  go  deeper.  Culti- 
vate close  to  the  trees  so  as  to  prevent  weed  robbery.    Sometimes 


FlG.  53.    The  Kimball  cultivator 

A  machine  broad  enough  to  work  up  close  to  the 

trees   without   bringing   the   horses   into   the  zone 

where  injury  to  limbs  may  result 


122  THE  APPLE 

only  3  feet  each  side  of  the  tree  is  given  the  young  trees  for 
growth  the  first  year,  the  remainder  of  the  land  being  devoted  to 
some  other  crop.  The  second  and  following  years,  however,  the 
space  given  them  is  increased  until  finally  all  the  land  between 
the  trees  is  clean  cultivated,  which  means  a  thorough  cultivation 
of  the  entire  orchard.  This  policy  of  allowing  ample  space  for  the 
growth  of  the  trees  will  result  in  a  thrifty  development  of  each. 

The  older  trees.  As  the  trees  increase  in  age  and  size  the 
method  of  culture  may  change  somewhat,  but  the  principle  is  the 
same.  Generally  there  are  fewer  weeds  to  contend  with,  owing  to 
the  shading  of  the  soil  by  the  trees,  and  for  the  same  reason  a 
catch  crop  cannot  be  grown  profitably.  If  the  orchard  has  been 
started  properly,  plowing  may  be  continued  quite  close  to  the  tree. 
It  has  been  noticed,  however,  that  either  the  older  trees  have  a 
tendency  to  produce  roots  nearer  the  surface  or  the  older  roots 
grow  upward,  making  the  close  plowing  and  harrowing  somewhat 
difficult.  In  the  author's  experience  this  lack  of  close  cultivation 
has  not  injured  the  trees,  for  the  near-by  soil  is  not  being  used 
by  the  feeding  roots  so  much  as  the  soil  farther  away.  However, 
plowing  or  disking  should  be  given  early  in  the  spring,  and  a 
good  soil  mulch  should  be  maintained,  as  stated  previously. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
SOD  CULTURE  VERSUS  TILLAGE 

Orchardists  who  advocate  sod  culture,  sod  mulch,  and  the  like 
—  terms  used  to  denote  that  an  orchard  is  "  seeded  down  "  —  do 
not  in  all  cases  agree  as  to  just  what  further  conditions  should 
obtain.  Some  claim  that  the  sod  in  the  orchard  should  be  of  the 
old  pasture  type,  with  little  or  no  annual  growth,  while  others. advo- 
cate a  heavy  growth  of  grass,  all  claiming  that  the  grass  should  be 
cut  and  allowed  to  lie  where  it  falls.  Others  want  the  cut  grass 
raked  up  and  piled  under  the  spread  of  the  branches.  Still  others 
advocate  that  some  material  such  as  coarse  manure,  straw,  corn- 
stalks, etc.  be  added  to  the  cut  grass.  Some  would  like  to  have 
the  sod  used  for  pasturage  —  one  approving  of  sheep  in  the 
orchard,  another  of  cows  and  perhaps  hogs.  It  is  therefore  dif- 
ficult to  decide  upon  one  system  of  sod  culture  that  will  please  all. 

There  are  certain  conditions  under  which  any  form  of  sod  cul- 
ture may  succeed.  In  England  and  other  countries  where  abun- 
dance of  moisture  in  the  form  of  rain  is  available,  any  system  would 
undoubtedly  prove  successful,  and  in  New  England  and  some  other 
parts  of  North  America  where  the  rainfall  is  large,  some  form 
of  the  system  might  prove  satisfactory.  However,  in  all  sections 
there  are  doubtless  some  locations  which  would  give  more  satis- 
faction than  others.  Then,  too,  the  variety  of  the  tree  grown  or 
the  modification  of  the  system  used  may  make  the  difference 
between  profit  and  loss. 

It  is  gratifying  to  know  that  experiments  in  the  comparison  of 
the  sod  method  and  the  modern  clean-culture  method  are  being 
carried  on  under  the  direction  of  some  of  the  state  experiment 
stations.  Ohio  seems  to  have  been  the  leader  in  this  movement, 
one  well-known  grower  in  that  state  being  highly  successful  in 
growing  apples  under  the  (sod  or  grass-mulch)  system.  New  York 
also  has  furnished  a  noteworthy  example  of  the  successful  working 

I23 


124  THE  APPLE 

of  this  system,  and  Pennsylvania  has  placed  itself  on  record  to 
the  same  effect.  Other  states  may  be  working  along  the  same 
lines,  but  they  have  not  had  such  marked  results.  In  practically 
all  the  apple-growing  states  varied  sod  conditions  are  to  be  found. 

Relative  merits  of  the  two  systems.  A  comparison  of  the 
relative  merits  of  the  two  methods  from  the  available  data  may 
be  helpful. 

The  foliage  of  the  trees  under  the  different  methods  shows 
marked  differences,  the  color  of  the  leaves  on  the  trees  under 
sod  cultivation  being  light  and  of  a  yellowish  tinge,  suggesting 
drought  or  some  other  lack  in  the  soil,  while  the  "tillage"  trees 
have  foliage  of  that  dark,  rich-green  color  which  indicates  an 
abundance  of  moisture  and  food.  The  leaves  show  a  difference 
not  only  in  color  but  also  in  size  and  number,  the  sodded  trees 
having  fewer  leaves  and  of  smaller  size  than  the  clean-culture  trees. 

In  regard  to  the  comparative  growth  of  twig  and  stock,  the 
evidence  seems  to  be  slightly  in  favor  of  the  clean-culture  method. 
However,  under  a  heavy  sod  mulch,  when  conservation  of  mois- 
ture would  be  very  great,  the  growth  of  twigs  and  the  increase  in 
the  size  of  the  leaves  might  compare  favorably  with  the  results 
under  clean-culture  conditions. 

The  sod  system  seems  to  gain  favor  as  regards  certain  impor- 
tant facts  concerning  the  fruit.  Young  orchards  grown  under  this 
method  have  a  tendency  to  come  into  bearing  much  earlier  than 
those  grown  under  the  clean-culture  method.  This  is  a  decided 
advantage,  especially  when  trees  have  been  purchased  that  may 
not  be  exactly  true  to  name.  By  reason  of  their  early  bearing,  if 
the  variety  is  undesirable  the  orchardist  may  be  able  to  graft  it 
over  into  some  more  valuable  kind,  thereby  reducing  his  possible 
loss  to  a  minimum. 

The  action  of  the  grass  in  pumping  the  water  out  of  the  soil 
has  a  tendency  to  cause  the  fruit  on  the  sodded  trees  to  mature 
earlier,  the  difference  sometimes  being  from  seven  to  twenty  or 
more  days  in  favor  of  the  trees  under  sod  culture.  The  color  of 
the  fruit  from  the  sodded  trees  is  also  generally  better.  Often  this 
increased  color  adds  materially  to  the  profits  from  the  sale  of  the 
fruit,  especially  in  the  markets  where  high-class  dessert  apples 
are  wanted. 


SOD  CULTURE   VERSUS  TILLAGE  1 25 

There  seems  to  be  little  difference  between  the  keeping  qualities 
of  the  fruit  in  cold  storage,  but  in  common  storage  the  difference 
is  in  favor  of  the  sod-grown  fruit. 

By  actual  count,  the  size  of  the  apples-  shows  some  difference, 
in  most  cases  about  a  hundred  more  apples  of  the  sod-grown 
variety  than  of  the  cultivated  fruit  being  required  to  fill  a  barrel. 
The  same  difference  was  found  where  the  apples  were  graded. 

The  wood  on  both  young  and  old  trees  grown  under  the  clean- 
culture  method  seems  in  better  condition,  of  better  color,  and 
plumper  than  that  on  the  sod-grown  trees. 

The  experience  of  many  orchardists  interested  in  both  methods 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  most  important  factor  is  the  conserva- 
tion of  moisture.  Under  clean  culture  with  cover  crops  probably 
the  maximum  amount  is  saved.  Under  poor  sod  management 
most  of  the  moisture  is  undoubtedly  lost,  but  with  good  manage- 
ment and  plenty  of  mulch  material  the  loss  of  moisture  may  be 
lessened.  It  would  be  impossible,  however,  to  stop  the  loss  of 
water  occasioned  by  the  transpiration  of  grass.  Moreover,  in 
many  cases  so  much  water  is  necessary  to  promote  the  growth 
of  grass  that  the  amount  remaining  in  the  soil  available  to  the 
tree  is  not  great  enough  for  the  production  of  wood,  leaves, 
blossoms,  and  fruit. 

Experimental  evidence.  A  summary  of  an  experiment  by  the 
Geneva  Experiment  Station,  New  York,  on  a  comparison  of  the 
tillage  and  sod  mulch  in  an  apple  orchard  is  very  interesting. 
This  experiment  was  begun  in  1903  in  the  orchard  of  Mr.  W.  D. 
Auchter,  near  Rochester,  New  York.  In  this  orchard  are  9I  acres 
of  Baldwin  trees,  40  feet  apart  each  way,  set  in  1877.  Of  these, 
118  are  in  sod,  121  under  tillage. 

The  Auchter  orchard  was  chosen  for  this  experiment  because  it 
was  uniform  in  soil  and  topography  and  quite  typical  of  the  apple 
lands  of  western  New  York.  The  land  is  slightly  rolling  and  is 
a  fertile  Dunkirk  loam,  about  10  inches  in  depth,  underlaid  by  a 
sandy  subsoil. 

The  tilled  land  was  plowed  each  spring  and  cultivated  from 
four  to  seven  times.  The  grass  in  the  sod  plat  was  usually  cut 
once,  sometimes  twice.  In  all  other  operations  the  care  was 
identical. 


126  THE  APPLE 

The  experiment  is  divided  into  two  five-year  periods.  During 
the  first  period  the  orchard  was  divided  in  halves  by  a  north- 
and-south  line,  during  the  second  period  by  an  east-and-west 
line.  One  quarter  of  the  orchard,  then,  has  been  tilled  ten  years  ; 
another  tilled  five  years  and  then  left  in  sod  five  years ;  the 
third  quarter  has  been  in  sod  ten  years  ;  and  the  fourth  quarter  in 
sod  five  years,  then  tilled  five  years. 

The  following  .is  a  statement  of  results  : 

The  average  yield  on  the  plat  left  in  sod  for  ten  years  was  69.16 
barrels  per  acre  ;  on  the  plat  tilled  ten  years,  1 16.8  barrels  —  dif- 
ference in  favor  of  tilled  plats,  47.64  barrels  per  acre  per  year. 

The  fruit  from  the  sod-mulch  plats  is  more  highly  colored  than 
that  from  the  tilled  land  and  matures  from  one  to  three  weeks 
earlier  than  the  tilled  fruit. 

The  tilled  fruit  keeps  from  two  to  four  weeks  longer  than  the 
sodded  fruit ;  it  is  also  better  in  quality,  being  crisper,  juicier,  and 
of  better  flavor. 

The  average  gain  in  diameter  of  the  trunks  for  the  trees  in 
sod  for  the  ten  years  was  2.39  inches  ;  for  the  trees  under  tillage 
3.90  inches  —  gain  in  favor  of  tillage,  1.5  1  inches. 

The  trees  in  sod  lacked  uniformity  in  every  organ  and  function 
of  which  note  could  be  taken.  The  uniformity  of  the  trees  under 
tillage  in  all  particulars  was  in  striking  contrast. 

The  grass  had  a  decided  effect  on  the  wood  of  the  trees,  there 
being  many  more  dead  branches  on  the  sodded  trees,  and  the  new 
wood  was  not  so  plump  or  as  bright  in  color. 

The  leaves  of  the  tilled  trees  came  out  three  or  four  days  earlier 
and  remained  on  the  trees  several  days  longer  than  on  the  sodded 
trees.  They  were  a  darker,  richer  green,  indicating  greater  vigor, 
and  were  larger  and  more  numerous  than  on  the  sodded  trees. 

The  average  cost  per  acre  of  growing  and  harvesting  apples  in 
sod  was  $5173  ;  under  tillage,  $83.48  ;  difference  in  favor  of  sod, 
$3 1 75-  Subtracting  these  figures  from  the  gross  return  leaves 
a  balance  of  $74.31  per  acre  for  the  sodded  plats  and  of  $140.67 
for  the  tilled  plats  —  an  increase  of  $66.36  in  favor  of  tillage. 
For  every  dollar  taken  from  the  sodded  trees,  after  deducting 
growing  and  harvesting  expenses,  the  tilled  trees  gave  $1.89.  The 
results  here  given  are  quite  convincing  in  favor  of  tilled  orchards. 


SOD  CULTURE  VERSUS  TILLAGE  127 

The  effects  of  the  change  from  sod  to  tillage  were  almost  in- 
stantaneous. Tree  and  foliage  were  favorably  affected  before  mid- 
summer of  the  first  year ;  and  the  crop,  while  below  the  normal, 
consisted  of  apples  as  large  in  size  as  any  in  the  orchard,  the 
falling  off  in  yield  being  due  to  poor  setting. 

The  change  for  the  worse  was  quite  as  remarkable  and  as  im- 
mediate in  the  quarter  of  the  orchard  turned  from  tillage  into  sod ; 
the  average  yield  in  this  quarter  was  not  half  that  of  any  one  of 
the  other  three  quarters. 

The  use  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  the  sod  plats  greatly  increased  the 
vigor  of  the  trees  and  was  a  paying  investment,  yet  for  the  five- 
year  period  they  bore  out  a  trifle  more  than  half  as  much  as  the 
tilled  trees. 

The  very  marked  beneficial  influence  on  the  sodded  trees  of 
ground  adjacent  under  tillage  teaches  that  not  only  should  apples 
not  be  grown  in  sod,  but  that  for  the  best  good  of  the  trees  there 
should  be  no  sod  near  them. 

Only  in  the  amount  of  humus  and  nitrogen  has  the  soil  been 
appreciably  changed  by  the  two  treatments.  The  quantities  of 
humus  and  nitrogen  in  the  plat  tilled  ten  years  are  so  much 
greater  that  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  tillage  and  cover-crop 
treatment  conserves  these  elements  better  than  the  sod-mulch 
treatment. 

Grass  militates  against  apples  growing  in  sod  in  several  ways 
which  act  together  ;  for  example  : 

1 .  Lowering  the  water  supply. 

2.  Decreasing  some  elements  in  the  food  supply. 

3.  Reducing  the  amount  of  humus. 

4.  Lowering  the  temperature  of  the  soil. 

5 .  Diminishing  the  supply  of  air. 

6.  Affecting  deleteriously  the  beneficial  microflora. 

7.  Forming  a  toxic  compound  that  affects  the  trees. 
General  statements  are  as  follows  : 

Sod  is  less  harmful  in  deep  than  in  shallow  soils. 

There  is  nothing  in  this  experiment  to  show  that  apples  ever 
become  adapted  to  grass. 

Sod  may  occasionally  be  used  in  making  more  fruitful  an  orchard 
growing  too  luxuriantly. 


128  THE  APPLE 

Other  fruits  than  the  apple  are  probably  harmed  quite  as  much 
or  more  by  sod. 

The  effects  of  grass  occur  regardless  of  variety,  age  of  tree,  or 
cultural  treatment,  and  are  felt  whether  the  trees  are  on  dwarf 
or  standard  stocks. 

Because  of  their  shallow  root  systems,  dwarf  trees  are  even  more 
liable  to  injury  from  grass  than  standards. 

Hogs,'  sheep,  or  cattle  pastured  on  sodded  orchards  do  not  over- 
come the  bad  effects  of  the  grass. 

Owners  of  sodded  orchards  often  do  not  discover  the  evil  effects 
of  the  grass  because  they  have  no  tilled  trees  with  which  to  make 
comparisons. 

It  is  only  under  highest  tillage  that  apple  trees  succeed  in 
nurseries,  and  all  the  evidence  shows  that  they  do  not  behave  differ- 
ently when  transplanted. 

Grass  left  as  a  mulch  in  an  orchard  is  bad  enough.  Grass 
without  the  mulch  is  all  but  fatal,  as  it  makes  the  trees  sterile  and 
paralyzes  their  growth.  It  is  the  chief  cause  of  unprofitable 
orchards  in   New  York. 

The  work  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  in  a  comparison  of 
different  methods  of  culture  as  applied  in  the  care  of  an  apple 
orchard  is  also  very  interesting.  They  began  the  experiment  in 
the  spring  of  1900,  planting  a  block  of  160  apple  trees,  eight  rows 
of  trees  with  twenty  trees  in  each  row.  The  trees  were  divided 
crosswise  into  four  plots  of  forty  trees  each.  Each  individual  plot 
is  an  exact  duplicate  of  varieties  and  the  order  in  which  they  stand. 
The  soil  upon  which  these  trees  are  grown  is  quite  uniform  as  to 
fertility  and  general  character.  The  surface  of  the  soil  slopes 
gently  toward  the  west,  therefore  affording  good  natural  drainage. 
The  plots  are  as  follows  : 

No.  1  is  a  cover-crop  plot,  No.  2  a  continuous  clean-culture  plot, 
No.  3  a  sod-culture  plot,  No.  4  a  sod-mulch  or  grass-mulch  plot. 

Plot  No.  2,  the  continuous  culture  plot,  after  four  seasons'  trial, 
was  abandoned  as  a  practice  not  to  be  considered  in  connection 
with  careful  orchard  culture,  the  reason  being  brought  about  by  the 
erosion  of  tons  of  soil,  exposing  the  roots  of  the  trees  in  numerous 
places,  breaking  up  the  surface  by  yawning  gulleys,  and  hindering 
the  work  of  the  team  in  passing  through  this  orchard. 


SOD  CULTURE   VERSUS   TILLAGE  129 

A  summary  of  the  remaining  plots  is  found  in  the  following 
five  points  : 

1.  The  main  root  systems  of  apple  trees  under  the  different 
methods  of  culture  were  found  to  be  at  a  surprisingly  uniform 
depth,  the  greater  portion  of  the  roots,  both  large  and  minute, 
being  removed  with  the  upper  six  inches  of  soil. 

2.  The  fibrous  or  feeding-root  system  of  a  tree  under  annual 
plowing  and  clean  culture  with  cover  crops  practically  renews  itself 
annually,  pushing  up  thousands  of  succulent,  fibrous  rootlets  to 
the  very  surface  of  the  soil,  where  they  actually  meet  with  the  steel 
hoes  or  spikes  of  the  cultivator  or  harrow,  especially  in  seasons 
when  moisture  is  abundant.  Apparently  but  a  small  percentage  of 
these  rootlets  penetrate  the  lower,  more  compact,  colder  soil,  but 
they  come  to  the  surface  soil  in  countless  thousands  of  threadlike 
extensions  to  feed  where  warmth  and  air  and  moisture  combine  to 
provide  the  necessary  conditions  for  root  pasturage.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  these  feeding  rootlets  are  cleanly  pruned  away  by  the 
plowshare  each  succeeding  year  and  without  apparent  injury  to 
the  trees  or  crops  ;  but  they  have  succeeded  in  performing  their 
function,  and  their  places  are  occupied  the  succeeding  season  by 
a  new  generation. 

3.  The  presence  of  a  network  or  mass  of  fibrous  rootlets  upon 
the  surface  of  the  soil  beneath  a  heavy  mulch  and  in  the  heavier 
portions  of  the  mulch  itself  is  no  indication  whatever  of  the  lack 
or  absence  of  feeding  rootlets  in  the  upper  soil ;  and  the  partial  or 
even  total  destruction  of  these  surface  feeders,  which  occurs  during 
the  hotter,  drier  months  of  summer  and  during  the  severe  cold  of 
winter,  does  not  cause  the  trees  to  suffer  in  the  least  degree,  as 
there  was  invariably  found  to  be  a  wonderfully  dense  network  of 
rootlets  occupying  not  only  the  upper  two  inches  of  soil,  but  also 
the  succeeding  four  inches  of  soil  below  that. 

4.  Inasmuch  as  the  surface  rootlets  in  or  beneath  a  heavy  mulch 
do  not  increase  disproportionately  to  those  beneath  the  surface 
soil,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  removal  of  the  mulch,  or  even  a 
change  from  heavy  mulching  to  the  clean-culture  and  cover-crop 
plan,  would  not  be  so  disastrous  as  has  been  generally  supposed. 

5.  Under  the  sod-mulch  system  of  culture  the  trees  have 
uniformly  made  a  heavier,  more  vigorous  growth  than  under  any 


130  THE  APPLE 

other  system  of  culture.  This  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  certainty  and 
uniformity  of  the  generous  store  of  fertility  right  at  hand  —  the 
concentration  of  an  abundance  of  plant  food  where  it  is  most 
available  and  the  consequent  presentation  of  conditions,  beneath 
the  mulch  of  vegetable  matter,  especially  favorable  to  a  healthy, 
unstinted,  continuous  nourishment  of  the  trees. 

General  advice.  The  only  good  advice  that  can  be  given  the 
orchardist  is,  "  Learn  for  yourself."  If  the  orchard  is  in  sod, 
plow  part  of  it  up  and  keep  a  record  of  each  part.  If  the  orchard 
is  under  clean  culture,  seed  some  of  it  down  and  adopt  the  plan 
of  cutting  the  grass  and  allowing  it  to  remain  where  it  falls.  Do 
not  remove  and  sell  the  grass  or  hay.  That  is  soil  robbery.  It  is 
practically  impossible  to  produce  good  apples  and  good  hay  at  the 
same  time.  Keep  an  honest  record.  Compare  results  for  ten 
years,  all  the  time  watching  similar  experiments  being  carried  on 
elsewhere  and  finding  out  the  particulars  in  each  case.  If  after  a 
fair  test  one  method  is  shown  to  be  more  profitable  in  all  respects 
than  the  other,  adopt  that  particular  method. 


CHAPTER  XV 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE 

In  Western  orchards  the  irrigation  movement  has  made  rapid 
progress,  but  the  East  has  been  very  slow  to  adopt  this  practice 
—  perhaps  because  the  need  there  is  not  so  great.  However, 
some  practical  experiments  along  this  line  have  recently  been 
carried  on  in  the  Eastern  states,  and  it  is  hoped  that  reports  of 
these  will  be  forthcoming  later. 

Water  supplies  for  orchards.1  Formerly  most  Western  orchards 
were  supplied  with  water  through  earthen  ditches.  These  leaky, 
unsightly  channels,  by  reason  of  their  cheapness,  would  have  been 
quite  generally  retained  had  it  not  been  for  the  increasing  value 
and  scarcity  of  water.  The  average  value  of  water  for  irrigation 
purposes  has  increased  over  300  per  cent  since  the  census  report 
of  1902,  and  in  many  localities  there  is  even  a  great  scarcity  at 
certain  times.  These  conditions  have  induced  many  water  com- 
panies to  prevent  the  heavy  losses  made  in  transmission,  by  substi- 
tuting pipes  for  open  ditches  of  earth  or  by  making  the  ditches 
water-tight  by  an  impervious  lining. 

The  scarcity  of  water  in  natural  streams  has  likewise  induced 
orchardists  to  install  pumping  plants  to  raise  water  from  under- 
ground sources.  It  was  estimated  that  in  1909  twenty  thousand 
of  these  plants  were  in  operation  in  California  alone.  In  other 
parts  of  the  West  reservoirs  are  being  built  to  supplement  the 
late-summer  flow  of  streams  which  fail  to  provide  enough  water. 

The  few  typical  examples  which  follow  will  give  the  reader 
an  idea  of  how  orchards  are  supplied  with  water,  and  also  of  the 
customary  manner  of  dividing  land  into  tracts  for  irrigation  and 
other  purposes. 

The  Lewiston  basin,  western  Idaho,  is  located  where  Clearwater 
River  flows  into  Snake  River,  and  varies  from  700  to  1900  feet 

1  Adapted  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  404,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

131 


132 


THE  APPLE 


above  sea  level.  A  few  years  ago  water  was  brought  from  neigh- 
boring creeks  and  stored  here  in  a  reservoir.  The  water  required 
for  orchard  irrigation  is  conducted  from  this  reservoir,  under  pres- 
sure, in  two  lines  of  redwood-stave  pipes  over  the  rolling  hills 
which   separate  the  reservoir  from  the  orchard  lands.    Contour 

J     I I      L 


BUIIRELL  AVE. 


i  r 


i    r 


FlG.  54.    Orchard  tracts  at  Lewiston,  Idaho 


lines  were  established,  and  each  section  was  divided  into  40-acre 
tracts.  These  were  further  subdivided  into  eight  5 -acre  tracts, 
with  a  20-foot  alley  through  the  center.  The  large  conduits  from 
the  reservoir  are  connected  with  smaller  lateral  pipes  laid  in  the 
alleys,  and  these  in  turn  are  tapped  by  3-inch  pipes,  which  furnish 
water  to  the  5 -acre  tracts. 


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'/f/nc/i  p/osfer    i^Saa. 

2'/z  Mc/r  cortrvfe-    ^m 

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/jBt£r        2%Mc/i  concrete 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE  133 

The  town  of  Corona,  California,  is  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by 
lemon  and  orange  orchards.  The  chief  water  supply  for  these 
groves  comes  from  Ferris  basin,  forty  miles  distant.  The  Temes- 
cal  Water  Company  owns  3600  acres  of  water-bearing  lands  in 
this  basin,  and  at  favorable  points  pumping  plants  have  been  in- 
stalled. These  plants  are  operated  by  motors  supplied  with  a  cur- 
rent from  a  central  generating  station  located  at  Ethanac.  The 
discharge  from  each  pump  is  measured  over  a  rectangular  weir 
having  an  automatic  register.  Small  lined  channels  convey  the 
water  from  the  pumps  to  the  main  conduit,  shown  in  cross  section 
in  Fig.  55.  The  concrete  lining  of  this  conduit,  is  composed  of 
1  part  cement  to 
on  the  sides  of  2] 
inches  and  on  the 
bottom  of  3  to  4 
inches.  The  lining 
is  rendered  still 
more  impervious 
by  the  addition  of 

?  Fiu.  55.    Concrete-lined  canal  of  the  Temescal 

inch  in   thickness,  Water  Company 

and  composed  of 

1  part  cement  to  2  parts  sand.  The  cost  was  5.1,  cents  per  square 
foot,  or  5  5  cents  per  linear  foot.  The  main  conduit  consists  of  about 
30  miles  of  lined  canal  and  10  miles  of  piping  30  inches  in  diam- 
eter. As  a  rule  the  groves  are  laid  out  in  1  o-acre  tracts,  and  piping 
of  various  kinds  conveys  the  water  from  the  main  to  the  highest 
point  of  each  tract,  from  which  it  is  distributed  between  the  rows 
in  furrows. 

A  large  part  of  the  water  used  by  the  Riverside  Water  Com- 
pany, California,  is  pumped  from  the  gravelly  bed  of  the  Santa 
Ana  River.  From  thence  it  is  conveyed  in  a  main  canal  to  the 
orchard  lands  and  distributed  to  the  groves  in  cement  and  vitrified 
clay  pipes.  The  owner  of  a  tract,  whether  it  be  10,  20,  30,  or  40 
acres  in  extent,  receives  his  supply  at  the  highest  corner  through 
a  hydrant  box.  Each  hydrant  box  not  only  allows  the  water  to 
pass  from  the  end  of  a  lateral  pipe  to  the  head  flume  of  the  tract 
to  be  irrigated,  but  also  measures  the  amount  in  miner's  inches 


134 


THE  APPLE 


W/)T£P  LEVEL 


SSI 


*&fc 


orifice    gM  re 

1      II 


'RON  PL/JTE 


under  a  4-inch  pressure  head  as  it  passes  through.  A  section  of 
the  hydrant  box,  showing  the  adjustable  steel  slides  to  regulate 
the  opening,  is  given  in  Fig.  56. 

On  the  Gage  Canal  system  in  Riverside  County,  California,  the 
water  supply  for  the  tiers  of  40-acre  tracts  is  taken  from  the  canal 
in  riveted  steel  pipes,  which  are  from  6  to  10  inches  in  diameter. 
These  larger  mains  are  connected  with  4-,  5-,  and  6-inch  lateral 
pipes  of  the  same  material,  which  convey  the  water  to  the  highest 
point  of  each  10-acre  tract.  This  general  arrangement  is  shown 
in  Fig.  57. 

The  ditches  conducting  water  from  gravity  canals  to  orchard 
tracts  do  not  differ  from  the  supply  ditches  for  other  crops. 

Location  of  the 
trees.  In  setting 
out  any  orchards 
which  are  to  be 
irrigated,  the  ele- 
vation of  the  sur- 
face of  the  land 
ought  first  to  be 
ascertained.  This 
is  usually  done 
by  making  a  contour  survey,  which  divides  each  tract  by  level 
lines  into  a  number  of  curved  strips  or  belts.  With  these  lines 
as  a  guide  the  proper  direction  for  the  tree  rows  can  readily  be 
determined.  Where  the  trees  are  watered  in  basins  or  checks, 
fiat  slopes  are  not  so  objectionable,  but  in  furrow  irrigation  a  slope 
of  about  2  inches  to  100  feet  is  necessary  to  insure  an  even  dis- 
tribution of  water.  When  streams  are  to  be  run  in  the  furrows, 
the  slope  of  the  furrows  may  be  increased  to  8  or  10  or  even 
12  inches  to  100  feet.  On  slopes  varying  from  10  to  40  feet  to 
the  mile,  therefore,  the  tree  rows  may  be  located,  at  the  proper 
distance  apart,  down  the  steepest  slope.  Under  such  conditions 
the  trees  are  commonly  planted  in  squares. 

Where  the  slope  is  so  steep  that  difficulties  are  likely  to  be 
encountered  in  distributing  water,  the  equilateral,  hexagonal,  or 
septuple  method  of  planting  (as  it  is  variously  termed)  should  be 
adopted.    In  this  method  the  ground  is  divided  into  equilateral 


Fig.  56.    Section  of  hydrant  box,  showing  device  of  meas- 
uring miner's  inches.    (Riverside  Water  Company) 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE 


135 


triangles  with  a  tree  at  each  vertex,  the  trees  forming  hexagons 
and  also  groups  of  sevens  if  the  center  tree  of  each  hexagon  is 
included ;  hence  the  name ' '  equilateral, "  "  hexagonal, "  or f '  septuple. ' ' 
The  chief  advantage  of  this  mode  of  planting  is  that  it  provides 
three  and  often  four  different  directions  in  which  furrows  may  be 
run.  There  are  other  advantages  —  the  ground  can  be  cultivated 
in  different  ways  and  about  one  seventh  more  trees  can  be  planted 
to  a  given  area 
than  is  possible 
in  the  square 
method. 

In  the  past 
the  trees  of 
the  irrigated 
orchards  have 
been  planted 
too  close.  This 
is  clear  even 
to  the  casual 
observer  who 
may  visit  the 
deciduous  or- 
chards of  the 
Santa  Clara 
valley,  Califor- 
nia, or  the 
apple  orchards 
of    the    Hood 

River  district  in  Oregon.  Under  irrigation  systems  apple  trees 
should  be  spaced  from  30  to  36  feet  apart.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the 
tendency  toward  wide  spacing  has  induced  many  growers  to  insert 
peach  fillers  between  other  slower-maturing  trees,  such  as  the  apple. 
A  common  practice  is  to  set  the  trees  in  18-foot  squares,  peach 
trees  alternating  in  every  other  row  with  the  standard  apple  trees ; 
the  remaining  rows  consist  of  Winesap  apple  trees  which  are  used 
as  fillers.  As  the  permanent  trees  grow  and  begin  to  crowd  the 
fillers,  the  peach  trees  are  removed.  If  more  space  is  required,  the 
Winesaps  are  taken  out,  leaving  the  apple  trees  in  36-foot  squares. 


LINCOLN    AVENUE 


Fig.  57. 


Orchard  tract  under  Gage  Canal,  Riverside, 
California 


136 


THE  APPLE 


Methods  of  Irrigation 

Furrow  irrigation.  The  usual  method  of  irrigating  orchards  is 
by  means  of  furrows,  which  vary  in  depth,  length,  and  distance 
apart,  but  do  not  for  this  reason  require  different  kinds  of  treatment. 
The  division  of  this  subject  is  due  rather  to  the  means  employed 
in  carrying  water  from  the  supply  ditch  to  the  furrows.  In  some 
cases  the  distribution  is  effected  by  making  openings  in  an  earthen 
ditch,  in  others  by  inserting  wooden  or  iron  spouts  in  the  ditch 


Fig.  58.    Head-ditch  constructor 
The  use  of  an  A-scraper  in  building  head  ditches 


banks,  while  in  many  others  flumes  having  the  desired  number  of 
openings,  or  pipes  with  standpipes,  divide  the  supply  among  the 
furrows.  These  different  means  of  transportation  will  be  described 
under  their  respective  headings. 

Earthen  head  ditches.  Permanent  ditches  at  the  head  of  orchard 
tracts  should  be  located  by  a  surveyor.  The  proper  grade  depends 
chiefly  on  the  soil.  If  the  soil  is  loose  and  easily  eroded,  a  slight 
grade  is  best.  On  the  other  hand,  the  grade  must  be  such  that  the 
velocity  of  the  water  will  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  deposition 
of  silt  and  the  growth  of  water  plants.    In  ordinary  soils  a  grade 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE  137 

of  2\  inches  to  100  feet  for  a  ditch  carrying  2  cubic  feet  per  second 
is  not  far  out  of  the  way.  The  amount  of  water  to  be  carried  varies 
from  \  cubic  foot  to  2  or  more  cubic  feet  per  second.  A  ditch  having 
a  bottom  width  of  24  inches,  a  depth  of  6  inches,  and  sloping  sides 
ought  to  carry  i|  cubic  feet  per  second  on  a  grade  of  A  inch  to 
the  rod  or  3  inches  to  100  feet.  Such  a  ditch  may  be  built  by  first 
plowing  four  furrows,  and  then  removing  the  loose  earth  with  shovels 
or  a  narrow  scraper  or  by  throwing  it  up  on  the  sides  and  top  of  the 
ditch  by  means  of  a  homemade  implement  resembling  a  snowplow. 
Canvas  dams,  metal  tappoons,  or  other  similar  devices  are  inserted 
in  the  head  ditch  to  raise  the  surface  of  the  water  opposite  the 
furrows.  The  chief  difficulty  in  this  method  of  irrigation  is  in 
securing  an  even  distribution  of  water  among  a  large  number  of 
furrows.  A  skilled  irrigator  may  adjust  the  size  and  depth  of  the 
ditch-bank  openings  so  as  to  get  a  fairly  uniform  flow  in  the  furrows, 
but  constant  attention  is  required  to  maintain  it.  If  the  water  is 
permitted  to  flow  for  a  short  time  unattended,  the  distribution  is 
likely  to  become  unequal,  with  the  result  that  parts  of  the  ditch 
bank  become  soft,  and,  as  the  water  rushes  through,  the  earth  is 
washed  away,  permitting  larger  discharges  in  some  furrows  but 
lowering  the  general  level  of  the  water  so  that  other  openings  may 
have  no  discharge.  Some  orchardists  of  San  Diego  County,  Cali- 
fornia, insert  in  niches  cut  in  the  bank,  pieces  of  old  grain  sacks 
or  tent  cloth,  over  which  the  water  flows  without  eroding  the  earth. 
Another  device  is  to  place  in  the  ground,  at  the  head  of  each  furrow, 
boards  pointed  at  the  lower  end  and  containing  a  narrow  opening 
or  slot  through  which  the  water  passes.  Shingles  are  also  sometimes 
used  to  regulate  the  flow  in  the  furrows. 

Short  tubes  in  head  ditches.  In  recent  years  short  tubes  or  spouts 
have  been  used  in  many  of  the  head  ditches  of  orchards  to  divert 
small  quantities  of  water  to  the  furrows.  These  tubes  are  usually 
made  of  wood,  but  pipes  made  of  clay,  black  iron,  galvanized  iron, 
and  tin  are  occasionally  used. 

For  nurseries  and  young  trees  especially,  but  also  for  mature 
trees,  a  cheap  and  serviceable  tube  may  be  made  from  pine  lath  — 
the  kind  used  for  plastering.  The  4-foot  lengths  are  cut  into  two 
equal  parts,  and  four  of  these  pieces  are  nailed  together  to  form  a 
tube.   One  of  these  tubes,  when  placed  with  its  center  2  inches  below 


1 38 


THE  APPLE 


Fig.  59.    Wooden  box  placed  in  tank  of 
head  ditch 


the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  head  ditch,  discharges  nearly  |  miner's 
inch  of  water,  and  if  placed  4  inches  below  the  surface  will  discharge 
more  than  1  miner's  inch.  In  southern  Idaho  the  lumber  mills  manu- 
facture a  special  lath  |  inch 
thick,  2  inches  wide,  and  36 
inches  long  for  this  purpose. 
If  these  tubes  when  thor- 
oughly dry  are  dipped  in  hot 
asphalt,  they  will  last  much 
longer.  In  some  of  the  de- 
ciduous orchards  of  California 
a  still  larger  wooden  tube  or 
box  is  used.  That  shown  in 
Fig.  59  is  made  of  four  pieces 
of  I  x  3^  inch  redwood  boards  of  the  desired  length.  The  flow 
through  this  tube  is  regulated  by  an  inexpensive  gate  consisting  of 
a  piece  of  galvanized  iron  fastened  by  means  of  a  leather  washer 
and  a  wire  nail. 
The  orchard- 
ist  who  lives 
near  a  manufac- 
turing town  or 
city  can  often 
purchase  for  a 
small  sum  pieces 
of  wornout  or 
discarded  pip- 
ing from  I  inch 
to  2  inches  in  di- 
ameter. When 
such  pipes  are 
cut  into  suita- 
ble lengths  they 
make  a  good 
substitute      for 

wooden  spouts.  Tin  tubes  I  inch  in  diameter  and  of  the  proper 
length  are  satisfactory.  They  are  preferred  in  compact  soil  where 
the  furrows  must  be  near  together. 


Fig.  60.    Wooden  check  in  head  ditch 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE 


39 


Fig.  6i.    Section  of  wooden  head  flume,  showing  opening 
and  gate 


In  making  use  of  tubes  of  various  kinds  to  distribute  water  to 
furrows,  it  is  necessary  to  maintain  a  constant  head  in  the  supply 
ditch.  This  is  done  by  inserting  checks  at  regular  intervals,  which 
vary  with  the  grade  of  the  ditch,  but  the  average  spacing  is  about 

1 50  feet.  In  tem- 
porary ditches  the 
canvas  dam  is 
perhaps  the  best 
check,  but  in  per- 
manent ditches  it 
pays  to  use  wood 
or  concrete.  An 
effective  wooden 
check  is  shown 
in  Fig.  60.  In 
this  the  opening 

is  controlled  by  a  flashboard,  which  may  be  adjusted  to  hold  the 
water  at  any  desired  height  and  at  the  same  time  permit  the  surplus 
to  flow  over  the  top  to  feed  the  next  lower  set  of  furrows. 

Head  flumes.  Formerly  head  flumes  for  orchards  were  built 
of  wood,  but  the  steady  increase  in  the  price  of  lumber  and  the 
decrease  in  the  price  of  Portland  cement  have  induced  many  fruit- 
growers to  use  the  latter.  When  built  of  wood,  the  length  of  the 
sections  varies  from 
12  to  20  feet,  16 
feet  being  the  aver- 
age. The  bottom 
width  runs  from  6 
to  12  inches,  while 
the  depth  is  usually 
between  1  inch  and 
2  inches  less.  Red- 
wood lumber  I  \  Fig.  62.  The  use  of  a  low  check  in  a  head  flume 
inches  thick  is  per- 
haps the  best  for  the  bottom  and  sides,  and  joists  of  2  x  4  inch 
pine  or  fir  are  commonly  used  for  yokes,  which  are  spaced  with 
4-foot  centers.  Midway  between  the  yokes,  auger  holes  are  bored, 
and  the  flow  through  these  openings  is  controlled  in  the  manner 


140  THE  APPLE 

shown  in  Figs.  61  and  62.  A  2-inch  fall  to  every  100  feet  may 
be  regarded  as  a  suitable  grade  for  head  flumes,  but  it  often  hap- 
pens that  the  slope  of  the  land  is  much  greater  than  this,  in  which 
case  low  checks  are  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  flume  at  each 
opening,  as  shown  in  Fig.  62. 

A  head  flume  composed  of  cement,  sand,  and  gravel  costs,  as 
a  rule,  about  twice  as  much  as  a  wooden  flume  of  the  same  capacity, 
but  the  early  decay  of  wood,  especially  if  it  comes  in  contact  with 
earth,  makes  the  cement  flume  cheaper  in  the  end.  By  means  of 
a  specially  designed  machine,  which  is  patented,  cement  mortar 
composed  of  1  part  cement  to  about  6  parts  coarse  sand  is  fed 
into  a  hopper  and  forced  by  lever  pressure  into  a  set  of  guide  plates 
of  the  form  of  the  flume.  Such  flumes  are  made  in  place  in  one 
continuous  line  across  the  upper  margin  of  the  orchard  tract.  After 
the  flume  is  built  and  before  the  mortar  has  become  hard,  small 
tubes  from  |  inch  to  i|  inches  in  diameter  —  the  size  depending 
somewhat  on  the  size  of  the  flume  —  are  inserted  in  the  side  next 
to  the  orchard.  The  flow  through  these  tubes  is  regulated  by  zinc 
slides,  as  shown  in  Fig.  62.  Flumes  of  this  kind  are  made  in 
five  sizes,  the  smallest  being  6  inches  on  the  bottom  in  the  clear 
and  the  largest  14  inches. 

At  a  slightly  greater  cost  a  stronger  flume  can  be  built  by  the 
use  of  molds.  The  increased  strength  is  derived  from  a  difference 
in  the  mixture.  In  the  machine-made  flume  the  mixture  of  1  part 
cement  to  5  or  6  parts  sand  is  lacking  in  strength,  for  the  reason 
that  there  is  not  enough  cement  to  fill  all  the  open  spaces  in  the 
sand.  In  using  molds  medium-sized  gravel  is  added  to  the  sand, 
and  the  result  is  a  mixture  that  resembles  the  common  rich  con- 
crete. These  flumes  can  be  built  of  almost  any  size,  from  a  bottom 
width  of  10  inches  to  one  of  40  inches  and  from  a  depth  of  8  inches 
to  one  of  24  inches,  but  when  the  section  is  increased  beyond  about 
240  square  inches,  it  is  better  to  slope  the  sides  outward  and  adopt 
the  form  of  the  cement-lined  ditch.  At  present  the  cost  of  rich 
concrete  in  place  would  be  about  $9.00  per  cubic  yard  for  the  larger 
flumes  and  $10.50  for  the  smaller  sizes.  In  ascertaining  the 
quantity  of  concrete  required  in  each  linear  foot  of  flume,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  know  exactly  the  size  and  thickness  of  the  sides  and 
bottom  of  the  flume.   In  reality  the  amount  depends  on  these  factors. 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE  141 

For  large  head  flumes  and  laterals  many  fruit  growers  first 
carefully  prepare  an  earthen  ditch  which  has  carried  water  for  at 
least  one  season  and  afterwards  line  the  inner  surface  with  cement 
concrete. 

Several  years  ago  3200  linear  feet  of  head  ditches,  14  inches 
on  the  bottom  with  18-inch  sides  and  a  2-inch  lining,  were  lined 
for  $26.50  per  foot.  The  cement  cost  $2.85  per  barrel,  gravel 
75  cents  per  yard,  and  labor  $1.75  to  $2. 50  per  day. 


fjj 

„$. 

r^^  ip 

FlG.  63.    Iron  standpipe  irrigations 
Method  of  irrigating  from  iron  standpipes  connected  with  pressure  pipes 


Pipes  and  standpipes.  Head  flumes,  being  placed  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  interfere  with  the  free  passage  of  teams  in  cultivating, 
irrigating,  and  harvesting  the  crop,  and  dead  leaves  from  shade 
and  fruit  trees  often  clog  the  small  openings.  These  and  other 
objectionable  features  have  induced  many  fruit-growers  of  southern 
California  to  convey  the  water  in  underground  pipes  and  distribute 
it  through  standpipes  placed  at  the  heads  of  the  rows  of  trees. 
Both  cement  and  clay  pipes  are  used  for  this  purpose.  The  former 
are  usually  molded  in  2-foot  lengths,  with  beveled  lap  joints,  and 
consist  of  a  mixture  of  1  part  cement  to  3  or  4  parts  fine  gravel 
and  sand.    The  most  common  sizes  are  6,  8,  10,  and  12  inches  in 


;42 


THE  APPLE 


a a 


diameter.  The  thickness  of  shell  in  the  12-inch  pipe  is  i\  inches, 
while  that  in  the  6-inch  pipe  is  a  trifle  more  than  1  inch.  Piping 
of  this  kind,  when  well  made  and  carefully  laid,  will  withstand  a 
head  of  between  10  and  16  feet.  The  clay  pipe  is  similar  to  that 
used  in  cities  for  sewers,  and,  having  stronger  joints,  withstands  a 
greater  pressure  ;  but  it  costs  more. 

A  line  of  pipe  is  laid,  about  2  feet  below  the  surface,  from  the 

feed  main  and  measuring  box  across  the  head  of  the  orchard,  and 

^  as    each  row  of 

trees    is    passed 

Turnout  Stone/  ,    •         •     • 

"^^SZfflSaCITZrilZm  a  standpipe  is  in- 
serted. The  gen- 
eral plan  is 
shown  in  outline 
in  Pig.  64.  Vari- 
ous devices  are 
employed  to  con- 
vey the  water 
from  the  pipe  to 
the  surface  of  the 
ground  at  the 
head  of  each  tree 
row  and  divide 
it  evenly  among 
the  furrows.  One 
of  the  most  com- 
mon consists  of 
a  series  of  stand- 
pipes,  the  top  of 
each  set  rising  to 


13 


m    (.$ 


M 


W 


i^ 


im 


m. 


Over  flow 
Stand 


m    m    w 


Fig.  64.    The  use  of  pipes  in  furrow  irrigation 


the  same  elevation.  At  each  change  of  elevation  special  standpipes 
are  used,  and  in  these  are  inserted  gates  provided  with  overflows. 
The  manner  of  distributing  the  water  from  a  standpipe  to  the 
furrows  of  any  one  row  is  shown  in  Fig.  65. 

Occasionally  a  high-pressure  pipe  is  substituted  for  that  of 
cement  and  clay.  This  is  tapped  at  the  head  and  in  line  with 
each  row  of  trees,  and  small  galvanized-iron  pipes  are  inserted. 
These  standpipes  are  capped  by  an  ordinary  valve,  which  regulates 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE 


M3 


the  flow  to  each  row  of  trees.  This  method  is  shown  in  operation 
in  Fig.  63,  where  a  young  orchard  is  being  irrigated  from  |-inch 
galvanized-iron  standpipes  connected  with  a  3-inch  wooden  pipe. 

Making  furrows.  The  length  of  the  furrow  is  often  governed 
by  the  size  of  the  orchard.  The  rows  of  citrus  trees  seldom  exceed 
40  rods  in  length,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  apple  orchards  of  the  North- 
west are  larger.  Even  in  large  tracts  it  is  doubtful  if  it  ever  pays 
to  run  water  in  furrows  that  are  more  than  600  feet  long.  Where 
the  soil  is  open  and  water  is  readily  absorbed,  short  furrows  should 
be  used,  otherwise  much  water 
is  lost  in  deep  percolation  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  tract. 
Professor  H.  Culbertson,  San 
Diego,  after  a  careful  investiga- 
tion of  this  subject,  has  reached 
the  conclusion  that  on  sandy  or 
gravelly  soil  having  a  steep  slope 
the  proper  length  of  furrow  is 
200  feet,  while  on  heavier  soils 
and  flatter  slopes  the  length 
may  be  increased  to  600  feet. 

The  grade  of  the  furrows  va- 
ries with  the  locality.  In  flat 
valleys  it  is  often  impossible  to 
obtain  a  fall  greater  than  1  inch 
in  100  feet,  while  on  steep 
slopes  the  fall  may  reach  20 
inches  in  100  feet.  On  ordinary  soils  a  grade  of  3  or  4  inches  is 
to  be  preferred,  and  where  the  fall  exceeds  from  8  to  10  inches  in 
100  feet  the  trees  should  be  set  out  in  such  a  way  as  to  decrease 
the  slope  of  the  furrows. 

The  number  of  furrows  in  orchards  depends  on  the  age  of  the 
trees,  the  space  between  the  rows,  the  depth  of  furrow,  and  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Nursery  stock  is  irrigated  by  one  or  two 
furrows  and  young  trees  by  two,  three,  or  four.  A  common  spac- 
ing for  shallow  furrows  is  z\  feet,  while  deeper  furrows  are  made 
3  or  4  feet  apart.  The  general  trend  of  orchard  practice  is  toward 
deep  rather  than  shallow  furrows,  a  depth  of  8  inches  being  common. 


FlG.  65.     Section  of  standpipe  outlined 
in  Fig.  64 


144 


THE  APPLE 


The  furrowing  implement  most  commonly  used  by  the  orchardists 
of  California  consists  of  a  sulky  frame  to  which  are  attached  two  or 
three  double  moldboard  plows.  Those  who  prefer  a  small  number  of 
deep  furrows  use  a  1 2-  or  14-inch  corn  lister.  In  Fig.  66  is  shown  a 
furrowing  machine  made  by  attaching  an  arm  to  a  cultivator  and  fas- 
tening two  shovels  to  the  arm.  The  space  between  the  furrows  is 
4]  feet  and  the  depth  is  regulated  by  the  lever  arm  of  the  cultivator. 


Fig.  66.    Furrow-making 
Making  furrows  in  an  orchard  for  the  purpose  of  irrigating 


Applying  water  to  furrows.  In  Idaho  200  or  more  miner's 
inches  of  water  are  turned  into  the  head  ditch  and  conducted  into 
the  furrows  by  means  of  wooden  spouts.  On  steep  ground  much 
smaller  streams  are  used.  The  length  of  the  furrow  varies  from 
300  feet  on  steep  slopes  to  600  feet  and  more  on  flat  slopes.  The 
time  required  to  moisten  the  soil  depends  on  the  length  of  the 
furrow  and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  this  locality  it  varies  from 
three  to  thirty-six  hours. 

An  orchardist  who  owns  20  acres  of  bearing  trees  near  the 
Sunnyside   Canal   in  the  Yakima  valley,  Washington,  waters  his 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE 


45 


orchard  four  times  each  season  with  14  miner's  inches  (.35  cubic 
foot  per  second).  He  makes  three  furrows,  40  rods  long,  between 
the  rows.  The  total  supply  is  applied  to  half  the  orchard  (10  acres) 
at  a  time  and  is  kept  on  for  a  period  of  forty-eight  hours. 

—  On  the  clayey  loams 

of  the  apple  orchards  on 
the  east  branch  of  the 
Bitter  Root  River,  Mon- 
tana, Professor  R.  W. 
Fisher 1  has  found  that 
it  requires  from  twelve 
to  eighteen  hours  to 
moisten  the  soil  in  fur- 
row irrigation  4  feet 
deep  and  3  feet  wide. 
A  man  in  Hood  River,  Oregon,  irrigated  3  acres  of  apple  trees 
in  furrows  350  feet  long,  spaced  3  feet  apart.  About  a  miner's  inch 
of  water  was  turned  into  alternate  furrows  from  a  wooden  head 
flume  and  kept  on  for  about  forty-eight  hours.  After  the  soil  had 
become  sufficiently  dry,  it  was  cultivated,  and  in  eight  or  ten  days 
the  water  was  turned  into  the  remaining  rows. 

For  the  most  part  the  furrows  are  made  parallel  to  the  rows 
of  trees.  An  arrangement  of  this  kind  is  satisfactory  in  young 
orchards,  but  as  the       


Fig.  67.    Furrow  irrigation,  showing  dry  spaces 


-Jt 


; 


ILJi 


1 


trees  reach  maturity 

their  branches  occupy 

more    of    the    open 

space    between    the 

rows  and  prevent  the 

making    of    furrows 

near  the  trees.    This 

is  shown  in  Fig.  67, 

where     a     space    of 

from    6    to    12    feet 

square,  according  to  the  size  of  the  trees,  is  not  furrowed.    This 

space  usually  becomes  so  dry  that  it  is  worthless  as  a  feeding 

ground  for  roots.     In  order  to  moisten  these  dry  spots  a  larger 

1  Formerly  horticulturist  in  Montana  Experiment  Station. 


Donoio 


Fig.    68.    Cross  furrowing  the  dry  spaces 


146  THE  APPLE 

stream  is  often  carried  in  the  two  furrows  next  to  each  row  of 
trees  and  the  surplus  led  in  short  cross  furrows  to  the  other  main 
furrows,  as  shown  in  Fig.  68.  Sometimes,  however,  diagonal  fur- 
rows are  used  to  moisten  these  dry  spaces.  The  latter  method 
is  best  adapted  to  grades  of  5  inches  or  more  to  every  100  feet. 

One  method  of  irrigation  and  its  cost  is  as  follows  :  The  imple- 
ment used  to  make  furrows  consists  of  three  shovels  attached  to 
a  beam  mounted  on  a  pair  of  low  wheels.  The  driver  sits  on  a 
riding  seat  and  by  operating  a  lever  can  regulate  the  depth  of 
the  furrows.  A  man  and  two  horses  will  furrow  out  10  acres  a 
day.  For  a  distance  of  150  feet  from  the  top  of  the  orchard  the 
furrows  are  made  straight.  They  are  then  zigzagged  to  within 
60  or  70  feet  of  the  bottom,  where  the  last  three  rows  of  trees  are 
irrigated  by  basins  which  catch  the  surplus  water.  The  depth  of 
furrow  is  6  inches,  the  length  800  feet,  and  the  distance  apart 
3  feet.  A  head  of  50  miner's  inches  (1  cubic  foot  per  second)  is 
used  on  10  acres.  The  streams  when  first  turned  into  the  furrows 
average  about  2  miner's  inches,  but  as  the  water  approaches  the 
lower  end  they  are  reduced  to  1  miner's  inch  or  less,  and  this  flow 
is  continued  between  twelve  and  twenty- four  hours.  The  items  of 
cost  for  1  o  acres  are  as  follows  : 

Making  furrows  and  basins $6.50 

Irrigating 3-QO 

fifty  inches  of  water,  24  hours,  at  40  cents  an  hour      .  9.60 

Rent  of  water  stock 12.00 

Total #31.10 

The  basin  method.  In  some  orchards  irrigation  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  ridges  formed  midway  between  the  rows,  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  thus  dividing  the  tract  into  a  large  number  of  squares 
with  a  tree  in  the  center  of  each. 

When  the  ground  is  hard  or  covered  with  weeds  a  disk  plow  is 
run  between  the  rows  and  the  loosened  earth  is  formed  into  ridges 
by  a  ridger.  If  the  soil  is  light,  sandy,  and  free  from  weeds  the 
disking  is  not  necessary.  Ridgers  are  made  in  various  ways  of 
wood  and  steel  or  some  combination  of  both.  A  common  kind 
(as  shown  in  Fig.  69)  consists  of  two  deep  runners  between  14  and 
18  inches  high,  2  inches  thick,  and  from  6  to  8  feet  long,  shod 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE 


147 


Fig.  69.    Ridger  used  in  basin  irrigation 


with  steel,  which  extends  part  way  up  the  inner  side.  The  runners 
are  4  or  5  feet  apart  at  the  front  end  and  from  16  to  24  inches  at 
the  rear,  and  are  held  in  position  by  the  crosspieces  on  top,  by  a 
floor,  and  by  straps  of  steel.    The  height  of  the  ridges  varies  with 

depth  of  water  to  be  ap- 
plied, from  4  to  9  inches; 
their  elevation  above  the 
surface  of  the  water  when 
a  basin  is  flooded  should 
be  several  inches. 

Several  methods  of 
flooding  basins  are  prac- 
ticed. In  one  a  ditch  is 
run  from  the  supply  ditch 
at  the  head  through  alter- 
nate row  spaces,  so  that  the  basins  on  each  side  are  flooded  in 
pairs,  beginning  with  the  lowest.  This  plan  is  shown  in  outline 
in  Fig.  70.  In  another  method  water  is  allowed  to  flow  through 
openings  into  each  basin  of  a  tier  in  a  zigzag  course  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom  of  the  or- 
chard, the  upper  basins 
receiving  the  most  water. 
With  gravity  canals, 
where  water  is  abun- 
dant, the  water  is  turned 
into  the  upper  basin  un- 
til it  is  full  and  overflows 
into  the  next,  and  so  on 
down  the  tier.  The  irri- 
gator then  begins  at  the 
lower  end  and  repairs 
the  breaks,  leaving  each 
basin  full  of  water. 

The  check  method.  Where  the  check  method  is  practiced,  it 
frequently  happens  that  the  land  planted  to  fruit  trees  is  that  on 
which  alfalfa  has  been  grown.  In  plowing  down  the  alfalfa  and 
setting  out  the  trees,  the  levees  undergo  little  change  and  the  checks 
can  be  flooded  if  it  is  considered  best.    A  better  plan  is  to  furrow 


Fig.  70.   Basin  method  of  irrigation 


148  THE  APPLE 

the  floor  of  each  check.  The  water  is  admitted  through  the  check 
box  which  was  used  for  the  alfalfa,  and  conducted  into  a  short  head 
ditch,  from  which  it  is  distributed  to  the  furrows.  The  chief  ob- 
jection to  this  method  is  that  the  checks  are  too  small  for  orchard 
tracts  in  furrow  irrigation. 

Time  to  irrigate.  The  best  orchardists  believe  that  frequent 
examinations  of  the  stem,  branches,  foliage,  and  fruit  are  not  suffi- 
cient to  determine  the  true  condition  of  the  trees.  The  roots  and 
soil  should  also  be  examined.  The  advice  of  such  men  to  the 
inexperienced  is  :  Find  out  the  position  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
feeding  roots,  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  soil  around  them,  and 
make  frequent  tests  of  the  moisture  of  the  soil.  In  a  citrus  orchard 
of  sandy  loam,  samples  are  taken  at  depths  of  about  3  feet  and  the 
moisture  content  determined  by  exposing  the  samples  to  a  bright 
sun  for  the  greater  part  of  a  day.  It  is  considered  that  6  per  cent, 
by  weight,  of  free  water  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  trees  in  a  vigorous 
condition. 

Dr.  Loughridge1  found  an  average  of  3.5  per  cent  in  the  upper 
2  feet  and  an  average  of  6.16  per  cent  below  this  level  in  an 
orchard  that  had  not  been  irrigated  since  October  of  the  preced- 
ing year.  It  had  received,  however,  a  winter  rainfall  of  about 
16  inches.  On  examination  it  was  found  that  most  of  the  roots 
lay  between  the  first  and  fourth  foot.  These  trees  in  June  seemed 
to  be  merely  holding  their  own.  When  irrigated  July  7,  they  began 
to  make  new  growth.  A  few  days  after  the  water  was  applied  the 
percentage  of  free  water  in  the  upper  4  feet  of  soil  rose  to  9.64  per 
cent.  The  results  of  these  tests  seem  to  indicate  that  the  percentage, 
by  weight,  of  free  moisture  in  orchard  loams  should  be  between 
5  and  10  per  cent. 

Many  fruit  growers  do  not  turn  on  the  irrigation  stream  until 
the  trees  begin  to  show  such  signs  of  suffering  as  a  slight  change 
in  color  or  a  slight  curling  of  the  leaves.  In  waiting  for  these 
signals  of  distress  both  trees  and  fruit  are  liable  to  be  injured. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  man  who  pours  on  a  large  quantity  of 
water  whenever  he  can  spare  it,  or  when  his  turn  comes,  is  apt 
to  cause  more  damage  to  the  trees  by  an  overdose  of  water. 

1  R.  II.  Loughridge,  assistant  professor  of  agricultural  geology  and  chemistry 
in  the  University  of  California,  in  experiments  at  Riverside,  California. 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE  149 

Number  of  irrigations  necessary  in  a  season.  For  nearly  half 
the  entire  year  the  fruit  trees  of  Wyoming  and  Montana  have 
little  active,  visible  growth,  whereas  in  the  citrus  districts  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona  the  growth  is  continuous.  A  tree  when  dor- 
mant gives  off  moisture,  but  the  amount  evaporated  from  both 
soil  and  tree  in  winter  is  relatively  small,  owing  to  the  low  tem- 
perature, the  lack  of  foliage,  and  feeble  growth.  A  heavy  rain 
which  saturates  the  soil  below  the  usual  covering  of  soil  mulch 
may  take  the  place  of  one  artificial  watering,  but  the  light  shower 
frequently  does  more  harm  than  good. 

The  number  of  irrigations  needed  depends  on  the  capacity  of 
the  soil  to  hold  water.  If  it  readily  parts  with  its  moisture,  light 
but  frequent  applications  will  produce  the  best  results  ;  but  if  it 
holds  water  well,  heavy  applications  at  longer  intervals  are  best, 
especially  when  loss  by  evaporation  from  the  soil  is  prevented  by 
the  use  of  a  deep  soil  mulch. 

In  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  fruit-growing  districts  of  Wash- 
ington the  first  irrigation  is  usually  given  in  April  or  early  in 
May.  Then  follow  three  or  four  waterings  at  intervals  of  twenty  or 
thirty  days.  At  Montrose,  Colorado,  water  is  used  three,  four, 
or  five  times  in  a  season.  At  Payette,  Idaho,  the  same  number 
of  irrigations  is  applied,  beginning  about  June  1  in  the  ordinary 
seasons  and  repeating  the  operation  at  thirty-day  intervals.  As  a 
rule  the  orchards  at  Lewiston,  Idaho,  are  watered  three  times, 
beginning  about  June  15.  From  two  to  four  waterings  suffice  for 
fruit  trees  in  the  vicinity  of  Boulder,  Colorado,  the  last  irrigation 
being  given  on  or  before  September  5,  so  that  the  new  wood 
may  have  a  chance  to  mature  before  heavy  freezes  occur.  In  the 
Bitter  Root  valley,  Montana,  young  trees  are  irrigated  earlier  and 
oftener  than  mature  trees.  Trees  in  bearing  are,  as  a  rule,  irri- 
gated about  July  15,  August  10,  and  August  20  of  each  year.  In 
San  Diego  County,  California,  citrus  trees  are  watered  from  six 
to  eight  times,  and  deciduous  trees  three  or  four  times  a  season. 

Duty  of  water  in  irrigating  apple  orchards.  The  duty  of  water 
per  acre  as  fixed  by  water  contracts  varies  from  -^  to  ?i^  cubic 
foot  per  second.  In  general  the  most  water  is  applied  in  districts 
that  require  the  least ;  that  is,  wherever  water  is  cheap  and  abun- 
dant the  tendency  seems  to  be  to  use  large  quantities,  regardless 


150 


THE  APPLE 


of  the  requirements  of  the  fruit  trees.  In  Wyoming  the  duty  of 
water  is  seldom  less  than  i  cubic  foot  per  second  for  yo  acres.  In 
parts  of  southern  California  the  same  quantity  of  water  not  infre- 
quently serves  400  acres  ;  yet  the  amount  required  by  the  fruit 
trees  of  the  latter  locality  is  far  in  excess  of  that  of  the  former. 
In  recent  years  the  tendency  throughout  the  West  has  been 
toward  a   more  economical  use  of  water,  and  even  in  localities 


Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dee. 

0.3 

" 

~ 

A 

- 

CD 

- 

- 

_ 

0.1 

- 

~ 

Fig.  71.   Duty  of  water 

Average  duty  per  month  under  Riverside  Water  Company,  December  i,  1901,  to 
November  30,  1908 

where  water  for  irrigation  is  still  reasonably  low  in  price,  it  is 
rare  that  more  than  2\  acre-feet  per  acre  is  applied  in  a  season. 
This  is  the  duty  provided  for  in  the  contracts  of  the  Bitter  Root 
Valley  Irrigation  Company  of  Montana,  which  has  40,000  acres 
of  fruit  lands  under  ditch.  Since,  however,  the  water  user  is  not 
entitled  to  receive  more  than  \  acre-foot  per  acre  in  any  one 
calendar  month,  it  is  only  when  the  growing  season  is  long  and 
dry  that  he  requires  the  full  amount. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Boulder,   Colorado,  the  continuous  flow  of 
1  cubic  foot  per  second  for  105  days  serves  about  112  acres  of 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE 


all  kinds  of  crops.  This  amount  of  water,  if  none  were  lost,  would 
cover  each  acre  to  a  depth  of  1.9  feet.  In  other  words,  the  duty 
of  water  is  a  trifle  less  than  2  acre-feet  per  acre. 

In  1908  the  depth  of  water  used  on  a  2i|-acre  apple  orchard 
at  Wenatchee,  Washington,  was  measured  and  found  to  be 
23  inches.  The  trees  were  seven  years  old  and  produced  heavily. 
This  orchard  was  watered  five  times,  the  first  time  on  May  13 
and  the  last  on  September  23.  In  San  Diego  County,  California, 
1  miner's  inch  (-^  of  a  cubic  foot  per  second)  irrigates  from  6  to 
7  acres  near  the  coast,  where  the  air  is  cool  and  evaporation  low, 
but  twenty  miles  or  more  inland  the  same  amount  of  water  is 
needed  for  about  4  acres. 

On  the  sandy  loam  orchards  of  Orange  County,  California,  it 
has  been  demonstrated  that  2  acre-inches  every  sixty  days  is 
insufficient  to  keep  bearing  trees  in  good  condition.  The  rain- 
fall of  this  locality  averages  less  than  12  inches  per  annum,  but 
about  95  per  cent  of  the  total  falls  between  November  and  May, 
inclusive. 

The  most  reliable,  and  in  many  ways  the  most  valuable,  records 
pertaining  to  duty  of  water  for  orchards  have  been  obtained  by  the 
water  companies  of  Riverside  County,  California.  Here  more  or 
less  irrigation  water  is  used  every  month  of  the  year. 

WATER  USED  UNDER  THE  RIVERSIDE  WATER  COMPANY'S 
SYSTEM  (1901-1908) 


Average  Depth  pek 
Acre  in  Feet 


Average  Rainfall 
in  Feet 


Total  Water  applied 
in  Feet 


December  . 
January  .  . 
February  . 
March  .  . 
April  .  .  . 
May  .  .  . 
June  .  .  . 
July  .  .  . 
August  .  . 
September 
October .  . 
November  . 
Total  . 


:59 

123 
.046 
.078 
177 
291 
274 
-7- 
269 
243 
189 
169 
29 


0.109 
.170 
.190 
.316 
.068 
.023 
.003 


.015 
■043 
•073 
[.01 


.268 

•293 
.236 
•394 
.245 

•3M 

.277 
.274 
.269 
.258 
.232 
•242 
•30 


52 


THE  APPLE 


Evaporation  losses.  A  light  shower  followed  by  warm  sunshine 
may  refresh  the  foliage  of  fruit  trees,  but  its  effect  on  the  soil  is 
likely  to  be  injurious.  A  brief,  pelting  rain  followed  by  sunshine 
forms  a  crust  on  the  surface  of  most  soils,  and  if  this  is  not  soon 
broken  up  by  cultivation  it  checks  the  free  circulation  of  air  in  the 
soil  and  also  tends  to  increase  the  amount  of  water  evaporated. 
It  has  been  found  that  the  amount  of  moisture  held  by  the  soil, 
the  temperature  of  both  soil  and  air,  and  the  rate  of  wind  motion 
are  the  chief  factors  in  the  evaporation  of  water  from  soils. 


r- 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/. 

•* 

\ 

A 

K 

■ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

V 

h 

/ 

V  N 

A 

/ 

\ 

\ 

,s 

0 

\ 

y 

/  I 

\ 

\ 

& 

& 

\ 

i 

/ 

\-* 

# 

s 

\ 

1 

V 

j£ 

\J 

<?5 

\sp 

Jan.         Mar.        May         July        Sept.        Nov 
Feb.        Apr.        June         Aug.         Oct. 

1904  1905 

Fig.  72.    Temperature  and  evaporation 

Relation  between  temperature  and  evaporation  from  a  water  surface  at  Tulare,  California 


The  results  of  experiments  have  shown  that  when  water  is 
applied  to  the  surface  of  orchard  soils  the  loss  by  evaporation  is 
very  great  so  long  as  the  top  layer  remains  moist.  Even  in  light 
irrigations  this  loss  in  forty-eight  hours  after  the  water  is  applied 
may  amount  to  from  10  to  20  per  cent  of  the  total.  In  order  to 
reduce  this  loss  and  to  moisten  the  soil  around  the  roots  of  trees, 
the  practice  of  running  small  streams  of  water  in  deep  furrows 
has  become  quite  common.  In  applying  water  in  this  way  the 
topsoil  remains  at  least  partially  dry,  the  bulk  of  the  water  soon 
passes  beyond  the  first  foot,  and  the  surface  can  be  cultivated 
soon  after  the  water  is  turned  off. 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE  153 

The  effect  on  evaporation  of  a  layer  of  dry,  granular  soil  when 
placed  above  moist  soil  has  been  shown  by  a  series  of  experiments. 
The  soil  received  an  irrigation  of  6  inches  in  depth  over  the  sur- 
face, and  in  the  tanks  which  had  no  mulch,  over  a  third  of  this 
amount  was  evaporated  in  thirty-two  days,  while  less  than  1  per 
cent  was  evaporated  in  the  tanks  which  were  protected  by  a  9-inch 
mulch.  Similar  experiments  carried  on  at  Wenatchee,  Washing- 
ton, in  June,  1908,  showed  the  following  losses  in  twenty-one  days  : 
no  mulch,  14I  per  cent  of  water  applied  ;  3-inch  mulch,  4  per  cent ; 
6-inch  mulch,  2  per  cent ;  9-inch  mulch,  1  per  cent. 

From  these  tests  it  is  evident  that  Western  orchardists  can 
prevent  the  greater  part  of  the  evaporation  losses  by  cultivating 
orchards  to  a  depth  of  at  least  6  inches  as  soon  as  practicable 
after  each   irrigation. 

Percolation  losses.  In  the  preceding  paragraphs  attention  has 
been  called  to  the  large  amount  of  water  that  is  vaporized  from 
warm,  moist  soils,  but  the  loss  considered  here  is  of  a  different 
character.  In  all  modes  of  wetting  the  soil,  but  more  particularly 
when  deep  furrows  are  used  as  distributors,  a  part  of  the  water  is 
liable  to  sink  beyond  the  deepest  roots.  As  a  rule,  the  longer  the 
furrow  the  greater  the  loss  from  this  cause.  Where  the  furrows 
were  about  an  eighth  of  a  mile  long  it  was  found,  after  an  irriga- 
tion, that  in  some  parts  of  the  orchard  the  soil  was  wet  to  depths 
of  between  20  and  26  feet,  while  in  other  parts  the  moisture  had 
not  penetrated  beyond  the  third  foot. 

One  of  the  best  ways  of  finding  out  whether  much  water  is  lost 
by  deep  percolation  is  to  dig  cross  trenches  as  deep  as  the  feed- 
ing roots  go.  The  moisture  which  passes  the  deepest  roots  in  its 
downward  course  may  be  considered  wasted. 

Winter  irrigation.  When  water  is  used  before  or  after  the  regu- 
lar irrigation  period,  or,  what  is  in  many  cases  the  same,  before  or 
after  the  growing  season,  it  is  termed  winter  irrigation.  Over  a 
large  part  of  the  arid  region  the  growing  season  is  limited  by  low 
temperatures  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  days  or  less,  and  when  the 
flow  of  streams  is  utilized  only  during  this  period,  much  valuable 
water  runs  to  waste. 

It  was  for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  some  of  this  waste  that  the  or- 
chardists of  the  Pacific  coast  states  and  Arizona  began  the  practice 


•54 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE  155 

of  winter  irrigation.  The  precipitation  usually  occurs  in  winter 
in  the  form  of  rain,  and  large  quantities  of  creek  water  are  then 
available.  This  water  is  spread  over  the  orchards  in  January, 
February,  and  March,  when  the  deciduous  trees  are  dormant. 
The  most  favorable  conditions  for  this  practice  are  a  mild  winter 
climate,  a  deep,  retentive  soil  which  will  hold  the  greater  part 
of  the  water  applied,  deep-rooted  trees,  and  a  soil  moist  from 
frequent  rains. 

In  the  colder  parts  of  the  arid  region  winter  irrigation  is  like- 
wise being  practiced  with  satisfactory  results.  The  purpose  is  not 
only  to  store  water  in  the  soil  but  to  prevent  the  winter-killing  of 
trees.  Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  not  best  to  apply  much 
water  to  orchards  during  the  latter  part  of  the  growing  season, 
for  this  tends  to  produce  immature  growth,  which  is  easily  dam- 
aged by  frost.  In  many  of  the  orchards  of  Montana,  no  water  is 
applied  in  summer  irrigation  after  August  20.  However,  owing 
to  the  prevalence  of  warm  Chinook  winds,  which  not  only  melt  the 
snow  in  a  night  but  rob  the  exposed  soil  of  much  of  its  moisture, 
one  or  two  irrigations  are  frequently  necessary  in  midwinter. 

Drainage  in  irrigated  orchards.  The  loss  of  water  is  not  the 
only  effect  of  deep  percolation.  The  water  which  escapes  in  this 
and  other  ways  usually  moves  through  the  soil  rather  slowly  until 
it  reaches  some  underground  body  of  water  at  a  lower  level.  If 
orchards  have  been  planted  at  these  lower  levels  when  the  subsoil 
was  dry,  the  rise  of  the  ground-water  level  should  be  carefully 
watched.  The  small  post-hole  auger  is  one  of  the  most  convenient 
tools  to  use  in  making  test  wells  to  keep  track  of  the  behavior  of 
the  ground  water.  Before  the  deepest  roots  of  the  fruit  trees  are 
submerged,  artificial  drainage  ought  to  be  provided,  otherwise 
the  ground  water  will  at  first  lessen  the  yield  and  finally  destroy 
the  trees. 

The  drainage  of  orchard  tracts  is  usually  accomplished  in  more 
or  less  distinct  and  separate  stages.  When  the  ground  water 
begins  to  be  a  menace  the  natural  ravines  in  the  vicinity  are 
cleared  of  weeds  and  other  rubbish  and  deepened.  If  the  ground 
water  continues  to  rise,  the  open  drains  are  deepened  and  extended 
or  else  the  excess  water  is  withdrawn  through  covered  drains. 
Open  drains  in  orchards  occupy  valuable  land,  obstruct  field  work, 


156  THE  APPLE 

and  are  expensive  to  maintain.  Some  of  these  objections  can  be 
lessened,  if  not  removed,  by  locating  such  drains  along  the  lower 
boundary  of  the  tract.  When  this  plan  is  followed,  covered  drains 
are  frequently  laid  among  the  trees  and  discharged  into  the  open 
drains.  Sometimes  the  source  and  direction  of  the  waste  water 
that  is  water-logging  an  orchard  can  be  traced  beneath  the  sur- 
face. In  this  event  it  is  well  to  try  to  intercept  its  passage  before 
it  reaches  the  trees.  This  can  be  done  by  an  open  drain,  but  a 
covered  pipe  drain  of  the  required  size  is  preferable.  Where  dur- 
able lumber  is  cheap,  box  drains  may  be  used  ;  where  lumber  is 
high  it  will  be  more  economical  to  use  pipe  drains  made  of  either 
clay  or  cement.  For  pipe  drains  ranging  from  4  to  8  inches  in 
diameter,  clay  is  most  often  used;  for  sizes  10  inches  and  over, 
cement.  The  clay  or  tile  drains  are  made  1  foot  in  length,  but 
for  the  larger  sizes  of  cement  the  length  may  be  increased  to  2 
or  even  3  feet. 

The  drainage  of  irrigated  lands  differs  in  many  respects  from 
that  of  land  in  the  humid  states  of  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Ohio.  In 
irrigated  districts  the  drains  are  larger  and  are  laid  deeper.  While 
4-inch  tile  drains  may  be  used  in  places,  6-inch  drains  are  to  be 
preferred,  and  should  be  considered  the  smallest  desirable  size. 
The  depth  at  which  they  are  laid  ranges  from  4  to  7  feet,  and  a 
depth  of  5  or  6  feet  is  required  for  orchards.  A  grade  of  5  feet 
to  the  mile  is  about  the  least  that  should  be  used,  and  wherever 
practicable  it  should  be  increased  to  10  feet  to  the  mile. 

In  laying  drains  that  are  likely  to  become  clogged  with  silt  or 
roots,  or  both,  a  small  cable  is  laid  in  each  line,  and  at  distances 
of  300  to  500  feet  sand  boxes  are  placed  so  as  to  facilitate  cleaning 
the  tiles  with  suitable  wire  brushes. 

Drainage  in  unirrigated  orchards.  The  question  usually  asked 
is,  What  should  I  gain  by  drainage  ?  To  become  a  successful 
orchardist  every  fruit-grower  should  be  familiar  with  the  reasons 
for  soil  drainage.  Drainage  removes  from  the  soil  the  surplus 
water,  which,  if  allowed  to  remain,  would  be  very  injurious  to 
the  plant  because  it  excludes  the  air  which  contains  oxygen — an 
element  that  helps  to  make  plant  food  available.  Drainage  also 
removes  the  injurious  salts  which,  if  allowed  to  accumulate,  often 
make  land  unproductive. 


IRRIGATION  AND   DRAINAGE  157 

The  heavy  clay  and  sticky  soils  of  the  valley  lands  can  be 
brought  to  a  higher  state  of  fertility  if  properly  drained.  When 
these  soils  have  an  excess  of  water,  they  are  cold  and  cannot  be 
worked  until  late  in  the  spring.  Drainage,  by  making  the  soil 
warmer,  lengthens  the  season  both  for  plant  growth  and  for  work. 
It  has  been  observed  also  that  these  clay  soils  when  too  wet  run  to- 
gether and  later  become  dry  bakes.  This  can  be  easily  remedied  by 
good  artificial  drainage,  which  makes  the  operations  of  tillage  easier 
and,  by  improving  the  soil,  renders  the  crops  less  liable  to  drought. 

Of  the  several  methods  of  draining  an  orchard  in  vogue  at 
present,  underdraining  with  tile  has  proved  to  be  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. Open  ditches  are  quite  common,  and  good  results  have  been 
obtained  in  some  places  by  using  wood,  stone,  brush,  cement,  or 
brick  for  draining  the  field,  but  the  tile  is  superior  to  all  of  these. 

In  the  sections  of  the  country  where  stones  are  numerous,  a 
system  of  stone  drains  may  be  constructed  —  a  main  at  one  side 
or  through  the  middle,  with  laterals  every  few  rods,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  land  to  be  drained  and  the  amount  of  water.  It 
is  necessary  first  to  dig  ditches  having  a  slight  pitch  to  the  bottom, 
in  order  to  make  the  water  run.  Not  less  than  6  inches  to  ioo  feet 
would  be  advisable.  Then  fill  the  ditch  about  one  foot  deep  with 
small  stones  about  the  size  of  a  baseball.  Over  these  place  larger 
stones,  and  then  a  layer  of  brush  or  coarse  weeds.  Upon  these 
weeds  or  brush  place  the  dirt,  rounding  it  slightly.  This  will  make 
a  good  cheap  drain  for  a  small  tract. 

For  large  areas  drain-tile  ditches  are  advisable,  with  mains  of 
6,  8,  or  more  inches  inside  diameter,  situated  at  the  side  of  the 
orchard  or  at  regular  intervals  through  it.  For  laterals  smaller 
pipe  of  the  3-  or  4-inch  size  can  be  used,  between  2  and  5  rods 
apart,  according  to  requirements.  Attention  must  be  given  to  the 
slope  of  both  laterals  and  mains,  so  that  the  water  will  be  carried 
off.  The  depth  of  the  drains  is  also  important.  It  is  usually  best 
to  place  them  at  a  depth  of  not  less  than  3  feet  nor  more  than 
9  feet.  However,  soil  conditions  vary,  and  a  greater  depth  may 
sometimes  be  necessary  to  meet  the  problem  in  hand. 

Many  orchards  are  conspicuous  examples  of  the  lack  of  drain- 
age ;  the  trees  have  more  or  less  dead  tops  and  show  a  general 
unhealthy  condition,  and  give  little  or  no  satisfactory  return. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
INTERCROPPING 

Many  orchardists  either  do  not  have  the  financial  backing  to 
enable  them  to  wait  until  their  trees  bear  fruit  or  do  not  deem 
it  good  business  to  make  their  orchard  a  nonrevenue-returning 
investment,  and  therefore  resort  to  intercropping. 

Intercropping  may  be  advantageous  in  some  cases  and  result 
unfortunately  in  other  cases.  Generally,  because  of  its  present 
commercial  value,  the  catch  crop  is  made  of  first  importance,  but 
this  is  a  mistake.  No  matter  what  catch  crop  is  used  or  what  kind 
of  fruit  tree  is  planted  as  a  filler,  everything  must  be  considered 
of  secondary  importance  to  that  of  growing  a  first-class  apple  orchard. 
For  this  reason  it  is  often  not  advisable  for  a  fruit-grower  to  under- 
take the  utilization  of  the  spare  land  while  the  orchard  is  young. 
However,  when  intercropping  is  thoroughly  understood  and  con- 
scientiously carried  out,  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  it 
cannot  be  practiced  to  advantage  in  the  orchard. 

What  crops  to  use.  There  are  many  crops  that  can  be  success- 
fully grown  in  the  orchard  as  an  intercrop.  These  may  be  divided 
into  four  classes : 

i .  Fruit  trees.  Fruit  trees  such  as  apple,  peach,  plum,  pear,  and 
cherry  may  be  used  as  fillers  with  the  permanent  trees. 

It  is  thought  by  some  orchardists  that  the  best  practice  is  to 
interplant  an  apple  orchard  with  apple  trees.  The  permanent 
trees  are  usually  of  a  slower-maturing  type,  such  as  Northern  Spies, 
Rhode  Island,  Baldwins,  and  so  on.  The  fillers  used  are  such 
varieties  as  Wealthy,  Fameuse,  Mcintosh,  Red  Astrachan,  Olden- 
burg, which  come  into  fruit  much  earlier  than  the  permanent  trees. 
About  the  twentieth  or  twenty-fifth  year  they  should  be  cut  out,  so 
that  the  permanent  trees  may  not  be  injured  by  competition  with 
them.  We  realize  that  it  is  much  easier  to  advise  an  orchardist 
to  cut  down  the  filler  trees  than  to  perform  the  task.    It  requires 

158 


INTERCROPPING  159 

determination  to  go  into  the  orchard  and  cut  down  trees  that  are 
producing,  in  some  cases,  their  maximum  crop,  but  for  the  good  of 
the  future  apple  orchard  it  must  be  done. 

Some  fruit-growers  go  so  far  as  to  advise  using  the  same  variety 
for  fillers  and  permanent  trees  ;  that  is,  Ben  Davis  with  Ben  Davis, 
Baldwin  with  Baldwin,  etc.,  having  the  permanent  trees  40  feet 
apart  and  the  intercrop  arranged  so  that  there  is  a  tree  every 
20  feet.  The  filler  trees  are  kept  "  cut  back  "  by  pruning,  so  that 
they  do  not  infringe  so  quickly  on  the  space  required  by  the  per- 
manent trees.  Sometimes  it  is  wise  to  give  the  permanent  trees 
a  start  of  a  year  or  two  before  the  fillers  are  planted.  The  author's 
experience,  however,  has  shown  it  to  be  best  to  plant  the  fillers 
first  and  the  permanent  trees  later,  this  method  giving  quicker 
and  longer  returns  from  the  fillers. 

Some  orchardists  prefer  either  the  peach  or  the  plum  as  a  filler 
for  the  apple  orchard.  These  trees  have  a  tendency  to  fruit  early 
and  are  usually  of  little  real  value  by  the  time  the  permanent  trees 
need  the  space  which  they  occupy.  In  some  cases  where  the  plum 
and  the  peach  have  been  used,  it  has  been  possible  to  pay  for  the 
whole  investment  to  date  with  one  or  more  full  crops  from  them. 
Not  everyone  likes  these  trees  for  filler  purpose,  however,  one 
reason  being  that  their  requirements  are  in  some  respects  different 
from  those  of  the  apple  tree,  which  means  two  different  orchards 
on  the  same  land  at  the  same  time.  This  may  mean  extra  care, 
extra  expense,  and,  at  times,  unsatisfactory  results.  However,  if 
there  is  a  market  for  this  class  of  fruit  and  the  fruit-grower  has 
intelligence  enough  to  manage  the  two  propositions  at  the  same 
time,  there  is  greater  chance  of  success  than  of  failure. 

Pears,  because  of  their  characteristic  demands  as  to  soil,  fertiliza- 
tion, and  culture,  do  not  offer  so  many  advantages  as  fillers  as  do 
the  other  larger  fruits  mentioned,  although  in  some  cases  they 
may  be  used  advantageously. 

The  cherry  tree  seems  to  be  as  well  adapted  for  filler  purposes 
as  any  tree  thus  far  mentioned.  It  has  not,  however,  been  used  as 
commonly  as  either  the  peach  or  the  plum.  The  slower-growing 
habit  of  this  tree  and  the  occurrence  of  the  harvest  period  at  a 
time  when  the  orchardist  has  more  or  less  leisure  are  two  great 
inducements  for  its  utilization  by  the  more  intelligent  orchardist. 


i6o 


THE  APPLE 


2.  Small  fruits.  Small  fruits  are  well  adapted  for  companion 
crops  with  a  young  orchard.  Owing  to  their  smaller  structure  and 
spread,  they  do  not  rob  the  trees  of  sunlight  nor,  to  any  great  ex- 
tent, of  the  plant  food  or  moisture.  They  may  also  remain  longer 
in  the  orchard  than  the  larger  tree  fruits. 

Strawberries  seem  to  be  the  most  desirable  small  fruit  to  use. 
They  are  planted  between  the  rows  of  trees,  usually  in  either  the 


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Fir,.  74.    Intercropping  the  young  orchard 

Orchard  showing  strawberries  between  rows  of  trees,  all  under  irrigation.    (After  F, 
Bulletin  No.  404) 


matted  row  or  the  hedge  row,  with  enough  space  near  the  young 
trees  for  cultivation.  Some  orchardists  do  not  permit  planting  closer 
than  3  feet  from  the  trees  the  first  few  years,  perhaps  increasing 
this  distance  to  4  feet  the  third  year,  to  5  feet  the  fourth  year,  and 
so  on,  until  the  clean-cultivated  strip  forces  out  the  intercrop. 

Strawberries  as  a  companion  crop  are  very  profitable  in  many 
sections.  Sometimes  as  much  as  from  $300.00  to  $500.00  per  acre 
may  be  received  from  the  sale  of  the  fruit,  but  ordinarily  the  returns 
are  less.  The  length  of  time  that  the  strawberry  bed  is  allowed  to 
remain  is  but  two  or  three  years,  and  only  two  years  are  fruitful. 


INTERCROPPING 


161 


Currants  offer  many  advantages  as  a  filler  crop  —  both  as  to 
growth  and  as  to  returns  in  money.  They  may  be  planted  in  the 
row  with  the  trees,  —  a  very  common  method  in  the  northeastern 
states,  —  or  they  may  be  planted  in  rows  between  the  rows  of  trees. 
A  good  way  is  to  plant  a  row  of  currants  halfway  between  the  rows 
of  trees,  and  on  both  sides  of  this,  at  a  distance  of  4  or  6  feet, 
another  row,  spaced  like  the  first,  making  in  all  three  rows,  which 


FlG.  75.    Another  profitable  companion  crop 

Cabbages  as  an  intercrop  used  between  young  trees  —  a  practical  way  of  obtaining  revenue 
from  an  orchard  before  the  trees  begin  to  bear 


are  far  enough  away  from  the  young  trees  so  that  for  several  years 
they  will  not  interfere  with  the  needs  of  the  tree  roots.  The  fruit 
can  be  harvested,  sometimes  the  second  year,  but  usually  the  third 
year  ;  it  may  even  be  later  in  some  cases,  the  time  depending  on 
the  age  of  the  plants,  the  care  given  them,  and  the  resultant  growth. 
About  $100.00  an  acre  would  be  a  fair  return  from  currants. 

Gooseberries  may  be  substituted  for  the  currants  and  should 
be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  regards  planting  and  culture. 


162  THE  APPLE 

Usually,  however,  the  returns  from  this  fruit  are  not  so  large  as 
from  the  currant. 

Blackberries  and  raspberries  are  sometimes  planted  in  the 
orchard.  They  are  not  so  well  liked  as  the  other  small  fruits, 
chiefly  because  of  their  thorns  and  new  sucker  growth.  Both  of 
these  characteristics  render  cultivation  and  other  work  among  them 
more  difficult.  The  returns  from  blackberries  approach  those 
obtained  from  currants,  but  the  raspberries  are  greatly  inferior  as 
a  money  producer. 

3 .  J  Vegetables.  Many  kinds  of  vegetables  may  serve  as  an  inter- 
crop with  apple  trees.  Some  of  the  most  commonly  used  are 
potatoes,  cabbage,  beans,  squash,  melons,  turnips,  beets,  carrots, 
the  selection  depending  on  the  demand  of  the  market  or  the  needs 
of  the  farm.  It  is  better,  however,  to  select  several  crops,  if  possible, 
and  grow  them  in  rotation.  In  a  large  orchard  a  third  of  the  area 
may  be  planted  to  potatoes,  another  third  to  squash,  and  the  other 
to  beans ;  the  next  year  potatoes  may  be  succeeded  by  squash, 
squash  by  beans,  and .  beans  by  potatoes  ;  the  third  year  beans 
may  be  substituted  for  squash,  potatoes  for  beans,  and  squash  for 
potatoes,  followed  the  next  year  by  the  original  crops.  By  rotating 
the  crops  or  changing  them  each  year,  there  is  less  robbery  of 
certain  elements  of  the  soil  and  better  returns  are  usually  obtained. 

4.  Field  crops.  Some  of  the  field  crops  are  not  suitable  for  use 
in  the  orchard.  Corn  seems  to  be  the  crop  that  is  the  least  desir- 
able ;  it  robs  the  young  trees  of  sunlight,  moisture,  and  food,  and 
has  not  met  with  the  general  approval  of  those  who  have  grown  it. 
Rye,  oats,  wheat,  buckwheat,  or  barley,  being  robbers  of  soil  moisture 
and  plant  food,  are  not  to  be  specially  recommended  as  companion 
crops.  However,  for  late  planting  as  cover  crops,  they  offer  some 
advantages.  If  they  are  to  be  grown  early  in  the  spring  or  summer, 
they  should  be  spaced  off  from  the  trees  as  described  previously 
(p.  160),  to  prevent  injury  to  the  young  trees. 

Cow  beets,  mangel-wurzels,  and  other  large  root  crops  that  are 
sometimes  grown  as  field  crops  may  be  used  as  an  intercrop  with 
a  good  deal  of  success  and  satisfaction,  especially  where  they  are 
planted  far  enough  from  the  young  trees,  and  good,  clean  cultivation 
is  practiced.  The  returns  from  such  a  crop  are  often  large  and 
are  of  special  value  to  the  orchardist  who  keeps  cows. 


INTERCROPPING  163 

Rotation  for  young  orchard.  The  author  has  practiced  the 
following  crop  rotation  in  a  young  orchard  of  700  trees  : 

The  first  year  potatoes  occupied  the  land,  the  clear  space  on 
each  side  of  the  young  trees  being  3  feet.  The  second  year  beans 
were  grown,  and  a  slightly  greater  distance  —  about  3.}  feet  —  was 
allowed  on  each  side  of  the  trees.  The  third  and  fourth  years 
strawberries  occupied  the  land,  giving,  even  with  the  matted-row 
system,  a  greater  cleared  space  near  the  trees.  The  fifth  year 
potatoes  were  used  again,  one  less  row  being  planted  between  the 
rows  of  trees  than  was  planted  the  first  year,  thus  increasing  the 
space  given  to  the  trees.  The  sixth  year  squash  was  planted, 
two  rows  of  squash  in  hills  being  sown  between  each  two  rows 
of  trees.  The  seventh  year  the  clover  from  the  cover  crop  was 
allowed  to  remain.  Beginning  with  the  eighth  year,  clean  culture 
was  given  except  every  fourth  or  fifth  year,  during  which  the 
orchard  was  permitted  to  remain  in  sod  —  generally  clover  sod 
from  the  cover  crop  planted  the  year  previous. 

This  rotation  has  proved  very  satisfactory,  and,  with  minor 
changes  to  suit  the  preferences  of  the  amateur  orchardist,  is 
earnestly  recommended  for  his  consideration. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THINNING 

Among  the  orchardists  throughout  the  country  the  practice  of 
thinning  the  apple  crop  has  not  met  with  as  universal  approval 
as  other  methods  of  orchard  culture.  However,  in  the  West,  where 
the  competition  in  fruit  raising  is  very  keen,  the  practice  has  been 
readily  adopted  in  the  belief  that  by  this  means  an  apple  of  superior 
value  could  be  produced.  Many  progressive  Eastern  orchardists 
later  followed  this  plan,  and  each  year  it  is  becoming  more  common. 

The  same  principle  is  involved  in  the  thinning  of  the  apple 
crop  as  in  the  thinning  of  beets  or  other  vegetables  ;  that  is,  the 
removal  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  young  plants  gives  to  the  re- 
maining plants  the  necessary  space  for  their  proper  development. 

The  apple  tree,  in  its  attempt  to  reproduce  its  kind,  strives  for 
the  production  of  the  maximum  amount  of  seed.  A  small  apple 
is  as  efficient  as  a  large  one  in  this  respect,  for  seeds  are  often 
as  large  and  as  numerous  in  small  apples  as  in  large  ones.  It  so 
happens,  however,  that  man  covets  the  apple  for  its  fleshy  parts, 
and  the  fewer  apples  per  tree  the  greater  will  be  the  development 
of  the  fleshy  parts  of  the  fruit.  The  larger  the  apple,  within  certain 
limits,  the  larger  the  edible  portion  and  the  more  highly  it  is  valued. 
Take,  for  instance,  two  perfectly  sound,  well-colored  Jonathan 
apples  —  the  one  that  is  less  than  2\  inches  in  diameter  would  be 
considered  a  cull,  worth  about  5  cents  a  bushel  by  any  fruit-shipping 
association,  and  would  be  fed  to  the  stock  or  made  into  cider  or 
thrown  away ;  the  apple  that  is  about  2|  inches  in  diameter  would 
be  considered  a  fancy  apple  and  be  highly  prized  by  any  lover  of 
fruit,  its  wholesale  price  averaging  from  $1.00  to  $1.25  a  bushel. 
In  other  words,  according  to  the  market  standards,  by  increasing 
the  diameter  of  the  apple  \  inch  we  increase  its  market  value  from 
20  to  25  times.  Surely  if  we  are  engaged  in  commercial  apple 
production  we  cannot  overlook  a  consideration  of  this  kind.    By 

164 


THINNING 


165 


the  removal  of  part  of  the  fruit  crop  at  an  early  stage  in  its  devel- 
opment this  increase  in  size  can  be  obtained,  and  it  is  often 
impossible  to  obtain  it  otherwise. 

In  the  production  of  fancy  boxed  apples  the  necessity  for  thin- 
ning has  been  more  apparent  as  competition  has  become  keener. 
But  while  the  practicability  of  thinning  peaches  and  pears  is  no 
longer  doubted,  the  majority  of  apple-growers  have  not  yet  realized 


Fig.  76.    Apples  waiting  for  the  press 

Would  you  rather  produce  this  sort  at  five  to  ten  cents  a  bushel  or  thin  yc 
high  grades? 


the  value  of  systematically  thinning  their  apples.  The  time  is  fast 
approaching  when  the  intermountain  fruit-grower  will  be  forced 
to  the  conclusion  that  it  no  longer  pays  to  grow  ordinary  fruit. 
There  are  but  few  localities  in  the  United  States  in  which  medium 
to  good  apples  cannot  be  raised,  and  this  grade  of  fruit  must  every- 
where compete  with  the  home-grown  product.  On  the  other,  hand, 
localities  in  which  strictly  fancy  apples  can  be  raised  are  much 
less  numerous ;  therefore  such  grades  less  frequently  come  into 


1 66  THE  APPLE 

competition  with  a  home-grown  product.  This  means  that  to  pro- 
duce readily  saleable  fruit  the  orchardist  must  resort  to  thinning. 

Benefits  from  thinning.  Some  of  the  benefits  that  may  be 
derived  from  properly  thinning  the  fruit  are  as  follows  : 

i.  The  color  of  the  fruit  in  many  cases  is  greatly  improved. 
It  has  been  found  that  in  heavily  laden  trees  the  color  was  some- 
what increased,  while  in  sparsely  laden  trees  little  or  no  appreciable 
difference  was. noticed. 

2.  The  size  of  the  fruit  is  increased.  Sometimes  the  number 
of  first-grade  fruit  on  a  tree  that  has  been  thinned  is  from  10  to 
1 8  per  cent  greater  than  where  thinning  has  not  been  practiced. 

3.  There  is  more  uniformity  in  the  fruit,  the  natural  result 
of  selection. 

4.  The  vitality  of  the  tree  is  conserved,  which  has  a  tendency 
to  encourage  annual  bearing.  Much  of  the  so-called  habit  of 
"  alternate  bearing  "  in  apple  trees  is  directly  traceable  to  the  fact 
that  they  overbear  one  year,  and  recover  from  this  overtax  by  bear- 
ing a  very  light  crop  or  none  at  all  the  following  year. 

5 .  The  number  of  broken  limbs  in  the  orchard  can  be  lessened, 
thereby  saving  both  time  and  money,  and  in  some  instances  re- 
ducing the  cost  of  propping. 

Methods  of  thinning.  The  apples  are  removed  by  hand  or  by 
shears,  the  consensus  of  opinion  being  that  hand  picking  is  better 
or  at  least  quicker.  This  is  undoubtedly  true  when  the  variety  to 
be  thinned  has  long  stems  or  long  fruit  spurs,  but  varieties  with 
short  fruit  spurs  cannot  be  so  readily  handled  this  way,  and  in  such 
cases  small  shears  made  especially  for  this  purpose  will  be  useful. 
Whatever  the  method  of  thinning,  care  should  be  used  not  to  break 
or  injure  the  fruit  spurs.  Few  will  be  broken  by  the  careful  worker 
if  they  are  grasped  firmly  in  one  hand  while  the  apples  are  removed 
with  the  other.  An  upward  and  backward  twist  of  the  fruit  will 
loosen  the  stem  from  the  spur  without  breaking  the  spur  or  dis- 
turbing the  remaining  fruit.  One  or  two  apples  are  often  removed 
from  a  cluster  in  this  way,  leaving  the  remaining  apple  or  apples 
undisturbed.  Careless  workers  who  persist  in  pulling  off  the  fruit 
should  not  be  tolerated.  A  light  picking-ladder,  from  which  the 
entire  bearing  surface  may  be  easily  reached,  will  hasten  the  work 
with  the  older  trees. 


THINNING  167 

Some  people  thin  to  a  definite  number  of  boxes  for  each  tree 
of  a  certain  age.  This  number  may  be  determined  by  actually 
counting  the  apples  on  one  or  two  trees.  Other  growers  have 
learned  by  experience  the  proper  distance  between  apples  if  they  are 
to  reach  a  marketable  size.  When  eight-year-old  and  nine-year-old 
Jonathan  trees  were  thinned  to  a  minimum  distance  of  4  inches, 
there  were  still  too  many  apples  remaining  for  their  maximum 
development.  A  minimum  distance  of  5  or  6  inches  would  no 
doubt  have  given  better  results.  On  young  Gano  trees  good  results 
were  obtained  from  thinning  to  one  fruit  on  a  spur,  with  the  spurs 
a  minimum  distance  apart  of  about  6  inches.  Some  varieties  of 
apples,  like  the  Winesap,  tend  to  set  too  abundantly  and  need 
heavier  thinning  than  most  other  varieties.  With  the  Newtown  the 
Western  growers  thin  so  as  to  have  as  many  4-tier  apples  as  possible. 

It  is  evident  that  no  exact  rules  for  thinning  can  be  formulated. 
The  requirements  will  vary  for  different  varieties,  for  different  trees 
in  the  same  year,  and  for  the  same  tree  in  different  years,  according 
to  the  amount  of  fruit  which  is  set. 

Time  to  thin.  For  the  best  results  the  thinning  operation  should 
commence  immediately  after  the  June  drop,  while  the  apples  are 
1  inch  or  i.V  inches  in  diameter.  Broken  limbs  may  be  avoided 
if  the  thinning  is  done  in  August,  but  the  other  benefits  will  not 
be  so  pronounced  as  when  the  work  is  done  earlier.  It  is  only 
natural  to  expect  that  the  sooner  the  remaining  apples  have  the 
benefit  of  the  entire  strength  and  nourishment  of  the  tree,  the  better 
will  be  the  results.  In  other  words,  less  of  the  tree's  energy  will 
be  thrown  away  and  more  diverted  to  the  proper  channels  if  the 
thinning  is  done  early  in  the  season.  Sometimes  it  pays  to  go  over 
the  trees  more  than  once  —  even  three  times  in  special  cases  is 
not  too  much.  Sometimes  the  thinnings  obtained  from  the  second 
and  the  third  operation  may  be  sold  at  remunerative  prices. 

Cost  of  thinning.  According  to  Western  figures  the  cost  of 
thinning  is  slight  compared  with  the  increased  returns.  The  actual 
time  spent  in  thinning  will  be  saved  at  harvest  in  the  sorting  of 
the  crop.  If,  however,  full  time  is  charged  to  this  thinning  work, 
the  cost  should  not  exceed  from  1^  cents  to  2  cents  per  box  of 
harvested  fruit.  In  the  case  of  the  Gano  variety,  which  is  more 
readily  thinned  than  some  other  sorts,  the  cost  will  hardly  exceed 


1 68  THE  APPLE 

i  cent  per  box  on  low-headed  trees.  This  work  can  be  done  entirely 
by  boys  and  girls,  and  thus  the  cost  can  be  kept  well  within  the 
limits  just  mentioned.  Girls  are  generally  quicker  and  often  more 
careful  than  boys.  From  10  cents  to  15  cents  per  hour  can  be 
profitably  paid  for  this  work. 

In  the  East  and  Other  sections  where  the  trees  are  larger,  the 
cost  of  thinning  mature  trees  which  are  well  loaded  should  not 
exceed  50  cents  per  tree  and  probably  would  average  less  than 
that.  For  a  10-barrel  crop  per  tree  the  cost  might  exceed  this 
amount  by  25  cents  or  more  per  tree. 

Increased  value  of  the  thinned  crop.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
thinned  fruit  brings  from  10  to  15  per  cent  more  per  barrel  than 
the  unthinned.  Some  Eastern  orchardists  claim  an  increase  of 
between  40  cents  and  80  cents  per  barrel.  In  the  West,  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  with  the  Ben  Davis  the  net  increase  per 
tree  was  Si.  16.  Where  Jonathans  were  thinned  to  a  minimum 
distance  of  4  inches,  the  average  increase  per  tree  was  71  cents. 
Where  the  trees  were  set  16  x  24  ft.,  or  1 1  5  trees  per  acre,  the 
increase  per  acre  was  decidedly  good  — $81.65. 

In  considering  net  profits  still  other  factors,  such  as  ease  of 
picking,  expense  of  grading,  and  the  general  welfare  of  the  tree, 
should  be  given  attention.  A  good  idea  of  the  saving  in  these 
particulars  is  found  in  the  statement  of  a  practical  grower,  that 
"  picking  apples  from  thinned  trees  is  from  10  to  20  per  cent 
cheaper  than  from  unthinned,  and  the  packing  is  cheaper  by  1 5  to 
30  per  cent." 

All  varieties  cannot  be  handled  in  the  same  way.  Each  grower 
must  solve  his  own  problem,  considering  such  factors  as  the  age 
of  the  tree,  its  size,  and  the  cultural  practices.  He  will  find  that 
frequently  certain  varieties  or  certain  trees  of  a  variety  will  need 
little  or  no  thinning  during  a  particular  season.  Where  the  trees 
have  been  pruned  severely,  not  so  much  thinning  will  be  neces- 
sary. It  is  often  suggested  that  pruning  may  be  substituted  for 
thinning  ;  but  while  pruning  thins  out  the  fruit  buds  and  affords 
relief  for  the  crowded  clusters,  it  can  hardly  take  the  place  of 
thinning,  for  a  pruning  severe  enough  to  reduce  sufficiently  the 
crop  of  a  bearing  apple  tree  would  probably  be  too  severe  in 
other  respects.     .     .     . 


THINNING  169 

Does  thinning  pay  ?  Practical  growers,  as  well  as  experimenters, 
generally  concede  that  when  growing  for  the  general  market,  if  the 
crop  set  is  very  full,  —  making  it  probable  that  there  will  be  a  large 
and  widespread  crop  of  small-sized  fruit,  —  it  will  pay  to  thin  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  insure  good-sized  fruit.  For  the  fancy  trade, 
thinning  of  fruit  will  undoubtedly  pay  well. 

It  is  possible  to  apply  mathematics  to  the  solution  of  this  ques- 
tion. If  apples  are  not  thinned,  there  would  naturally  be  plenty  of 
them,  selling  from  40  to  50  cents  a  bushel  ;  whereas,  if  properly 
thinned,  larger,  choicer  fruits  would  be  obtained.  The  number  of 
bushels  would  be  less,  but  the  price  would  be  higher — $1.00  a 
bushel  or  more  —  because  of  the  greater  desirability.  In  terms  of 
dollars  and  cents,  100  bushels  of  unthinned  fruit  at  50  cents  would 
bring  $50.00;  60  bushels  of  thinned  fruit  at  $1.00  would  bring 
$60.00.  The  thinning  would  generally  not  cost  as  much  as  the 
extra  expense  of  picking,  grading,  packing,  packages,  etc.  for  the 
unthinned  fruit.  There  seems  to  be,  therefore,  a  small  net  bal- 
ance in  dollars  and  cents  in  favor  of  the  thinned  fruit.  Besides 
the  commercial  money  value  there  would  be  the  probable  keeping 
of  customers  by  selling  extra-fancy  apples  instead  of  average  sorts. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

INSECTS 

Insects  which  prey  upon  the  apple  tree  or  its  products  are  very 
numerous.  In  1894,  before  a  Western  horticultural  society,  a  list 
of  281  species  was  discussed,  to  which  might  have  been  added 
at  least  50  others,  making  a  total  of  over  300.  To  make  the 
list  complete  there  must,  of  course,  be  added  such  others  as  have 
been  reported  during  the  twenty  years  since  1894.  Although  this 
list  covers  a  large  territory  and  includes  many  species  not  known 
to  be  seriously  injurious,  it  is  suggestive  of  one  of  the  dangers 
to  the  apple  crops  of  the  country. 

Besides  the  common  harmful  insects  with  which  every  orchardist 
is  familiar,  there  are  others,  which,  although  less  generally  destruc- 
tive, of  less  general  distribution,  more  given  to  seasonal  fluctua- 
tions, and  usually  accorded  but  slight  attention,  are  nevertheless 
causing  considerable  annual  losses.  These  are  sufficiently  injurious 
to  warrant  special  attention  outside  the  usual,  general  spraying. 

Many  injurious  insects  fluctuate  in  numbers  through  more  or  less 
definite  cycles  ;  they  gradually  increase  to  a  maximum  of  destruc- 
tiveness,  which  may  extend  over  two  or  three  years,  and  then, 
through  the  increase  of  parasites  or  through  weather  conditions 
unfavorable  to  them,  they  rapidly  decrease  in  numbers  until  they 
cease  to  attract  notice  for  a  time,  possibly  for  several  years.  Some 
insects,  like  the  codling  moth,  appear  to  be  perpetually  in  evidence  ; 
but  even  with  this  insect  there  are  marked  seasonal  differences  in 
numbers,  which  are  sometimes  attributed  to  the  maximum  devel- 
opment of  parasites  or  to  climatic  extremes,  but  which  often  cannot 
with  certainty  be  assigned  to  any  definite  cause. 

As  destructive  insects  fluctuate  between  minimum  and  maxi- 
mum destructiveness,  so  their  parasites  fluctuate  between  mini- 
mum and  maximum  efficiency,  maintaining  a  balance  that  prevents 
perpetual  ascendancy  on  the  part  of  either  host  or  parasite.    An 

170 


INSECTS  171 

insect  appearing  as  a  casual  invader  upon  fruit  trees  may  become 
a  serious  pest  by  reason  of  scarcity  of  its  natural  food  plant.  During 
a  period  of  minimum  production  of  a  given  species,  some  insect 
which  has  accepted  that  species  as  its  food  may  be  driven  to  seek 
sustenance  elsewhere  and  is  likely  to  find  its  wants  met  by  foliage 
or  fruit  of  some  crop  plant. 

The  clearing  away  of  a  timber  tract  may  result  in  serious  depre- 
dations upon  neighboring  orchards  by  insects  whose  natural  food 
plants  have  thus  been  destroyed.  When  a  native  insect  leaves 
a  wild  food  plant  and  finds  an  acceptable  substitute  in  leaves  or 
fruit  of  orchard  trees,  it  enters  upon  a  new  career  and  is  likely  to 
push  rapidly  to  a  maximum  in  numbers  because  of  the  abundance 
of  food  at  hand.  When  the  apple  curculio  and  the  dreaded  rail- 
road worm,  which  originally  fed  on  the  wild  hawthorn,  and  the 
flat-headed  borer,  which  lived  in  the  oak,  were  forced  by  the 
decrease  of  their  natural  food  plants  to  substitute  cultivated  fruits 
and  fruit  trees,  they  solved  their  own  food  problem,  but  in  so  do- 
ing laid  a  heavy  burden  upon  the  fruit-grower.  They  have  become 
real  pests  and,  while  held  more  or  less  in  check  by  natural  enemies, 
must  be  seriously  considered  in  fruit-growing  operations. 

From  the  little  that  has  been  said  it  should  be  evident  that 
attention  must  be  given  to  all  insect  injuries  that  may  be  dis- 
covered on  tree  or  fruit,  no  matter  how  slight  or  infrequent  they 
may  be.  Establish  the  connection  between  the  injury  observed 
and  the  insect  that  does  it ;  learn  the  habits  of  the  insect,  its 
period  of  work,  and  all  facts  possible  regarding  its  history ;  or 
take  the  safe  and  more  expedient  course  of  sending  the  insect  and 
a  specimen  of  its  work  to  an  entomologist  for  determination  and 
information  regarding  its  history,  its  standing  as  an  injurious 
species,  the  probabilities  of  its  becoming  seriously  destructive,  and 
the  most  efficient  remedies.  File  this  information  for  easy  access 
when  the  time  of  need  comes. 

The  discussion  of  the  insects  affecting  the  apple  will  be  subdi- 
vided according  to  the  parts  of  the  tree. 

1 .  Those  affecting  woody  parts. 

2.  Those  affecting  leaves. 

3.  Those  affecting  blossoms. 

4.  Those  affecting  fruit. 


172 


THE  APPLE 


[nsects  affecting  the  Woody   Paris  of  the  Tree 

Flat-headed  borer  (Chrysobothris  femorata,  Fab.).  The  adult 
flat-headed  borer  is  smaller  than  the  adult  of  the  round-headed 
species,  being  only  about  half  an  inch  in  length.    It  is  a  beautiful, 

burnished  beetle,  reflect- 
ing bright  metallic  colors 
in  which  green,  black, 
and  bronze  predominate. 
The  body  is  flattened  and 
tapers  at  the  posterior 
end.  It  makes  an  early 
appearance  in  the  spring, 
lays  its  eggs,  and  larvae 
are  hatched  which  mature 
in  one  year  and  issue 
as  adults  the  following 
spring.  The  larva  tunnels 
first  into  the  sapwood, 
but  later  bores  into  the 
heartwood,  working  back 
to  the  bark  in  the  spring 
and  pupating.  Sometimes 
the  winter  is  passed  in  the 
pupa  state.  In  making  its 
escape  from  the  tree  the 
borer  cuts  an  elliptical 
hole,  thus  differentiating 
this  species  from  the 
round-headed  borer,  which 
cuts  a  circular  emergence 
hole. 


Fig.  77.    Adult  round-headed  apple-tree  borer 
(natural  size).    (Photograph  by  W.  E.  Rumsey) 


Nature  of  the  injury.  The  flat-headed  borer  is  more  injurious 
to  young  apple  trees  than  to  old  bearing  trees.  The  larva  gener- 
ally works  in  the  trunk,  and  gets  higher  up  in  the  young  trees, 
often  to  the  first  lateral  limbs.  It  is  not  unusual,  however,  to  find 
it  working  in  the  roots  of  young  trees  some  inches  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.    Infestations  are  detected  by  the  patches  of 


INSECTS 


173 


discolored,  undermined  bark.  Generally  this  borer  does  not  show 
a  preference  for  trees  of  vigorous,  unimpaired  growth,  but  attacks 
weakened,  devitalized  trees  ;  when  these  are  lacking,  however,  it 
attacks  sound  trees. 

Remedies.  The  control  measures  for  the  flat-headed  borer  and 
the  round-headed  species  are  the  same.  The  trunks  of  trees  are 
sometimes  painted  with  deterrent  compounds,  such  as  whale-oil 
soap,  carbolated  soft  soap,  etc.,  to  discourage  egg  laying.  These 
remedies  should  be  applied  early  in  the  spring  as  thick  pastes,  and 
renewed  at  intervals  through- 
out the  summer. 

Round-headed  borer  (Saperda 
Candida,  Fab.).  The  adult  of 
this  species  is  a  large  beetle, 
nearly  one  inch  in  length, 
yellowish-brown  above  and 
silvery-white  beneath.  Two 
broad,  white,  slightly-curved 
stripes  traverse  the  entire 
length  of  the  back.  The  larva 
is  a  large,  footless,  light- 
yellowish  grub,  about  one  inch 
long  when  fully  grown,  taper- 
ing in  a  graduated  scale  from 
segment  to  segment  through- 
out its  entire  length.  The  head  is  darker  than  the  body  and 
slightly  larger  in  diameter.  The  pupa  is  slightly  shorter  than  the 
larva  and  looks  something  like  the  adult. 

The  beetles  appear  in  May  and  June,  and  eggs  are  laid  soon 
after.  The  eggs  are  deposited  by  the  females  in  slits  cut  in  the 
bark  near  the  base  of  the  tree,  and  are  hatched  in  two  or  three 
weeks.  The  larva  at  once  tunnels  into  the  bark  and  feeds  on  the 
sapwood  during  the  first  year,  cutting  a  disk-shaped  burrow,  at 
the  bottom  of  which  it  passes  the  winter,  not  feeding  again  until 
the  spring  of  the  second  year.  The  burrow  is  enlarged  greatly  the 
second  year  by  the  renewed  feeding  of  the  larva,  and  the  castings 
are  pushed  out  through  holes  cut  in  the  bark.  In  small  trees 
the  trunk  is  often  completely  girdled  by  these  holes.    The  larva 


Fig.  78.  Round-headed  apple-tree  borer 
(natural-size  dorsal,  ventral,  and  lateral 
views).    (Photograph  by  W.  E.  Rumsey) 


174  THE  APPLE 

increases  considerably  in  size  the  second  year  and  does  not  feed 
exclusively  on  the  sapwood,  but  gnaws  into  the  heartwood.  The 
winter  of  the  second  year  is  passed  deep  in  the  burrows.  The  third 
year  the  borer  penetrates  still  deeper  into  the  heart  of  the  tree, 
there  reaching  a  full  larval  development.  It  finally  forces  its  way 
back  to  the  bark  and  forms  a  pupa,  from  which  it  emerges  the 
following  spring  as  the  adult  beetle. 

Appearance  of  infested  trees.  The  presence  of  the  round-headed 
borer  is  usually  not  detected  until  the  second  year.  It  may  be  rec- 
ognized by  the  discolored,  sunken  patches  of  bark  marking  the 
burrows  beneath.  These  areas  sometimes  show  an  exudation  of 
sap  from  the  wound,  but  more  often  are  evident  by  the  castings 
thrust  out  by  the  larva.  The  area  of  egg-laying  is  usually  in  the 
trunk,  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  ground,  but  in  small  trees  it  is 
often  found  below  ground,  at  the  crown.  Several  larvae  may  girdle 
and  destroy  a  young  tree.  In  older  trees  the  injury  is  not  always 
fatal,  but  the  growth  of  both  tree  and  fruit  is  heavily  retarded. 

Remedies.  The  borers  are  readily  removed  by  a  knife,  or  killed 
by  a  prodding  of  their  channels  with  a  sharp  wire.  When  there 
are  several  borers  in  one  tree  the  use  of  a  knife  is  not  altogether 
safe  because  of  the  danger  of  girdling  the  trunk.  The  safest, 
surest  method  is  to  tap  the  channels  and  inject  into  them  small 
quantities  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  stopping  up  all  entrances  to  the 
channels  with  wax,  or  something  similar,  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
the  gas.  The  deadly  fumes  of  carbon  bisulphide  penetrate  to  all 
parts  of  the  tunnels  and  kill  the  larvae  within,  making  it  unnecessary 
to  cut  into  the  bark  or  wood  in  search  of  them. 

Shot-hole  borer.  The  shot-hole  borer  usually  works  in  the 
branches  of  the  tree.  So  far  as  observed,  it  has  not  yet  done  a 
great  deal  of  damage  to  the  apple  trees  in  the  Eastern  states.  In 
any  event,  it  is  injurious  only  when  a  tree  is  greatly  reduced  in 
vitality  from  some  other  cause,  and  the  remedy  is  to  increase  the 
vigor  of  the  tree. 

Lice,  or  Aphids 

Oyster-shell  scale.  Three  scale  insects  commonly  occur  in  our 
apple  orchards.  The  scurfy  scale  is  found  in  almost  every  orchard, 
but  seldom    in   very   large   numbers.     The  oyster-shell  scale,  or 


INSECTS 


175 


bark  louse,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  much  more  prevalent,  and 
occasionally  becomes  so  numerous  as  to  destroy  a  tree.  Generally, 
however,  this  and  the  scurfy  scale  are  kept  in  check  by  efficient 
parasites.  From  a  study  of  the  history  of  these  scales,  we  find 
that  the  females  lay  eggs  under  the  scale  covering  in  the  fall  of 
the  year  and  subsequently 
die.  The  eggs  live  over 
winter  and  hatch  the  follow- 
ing season,  about  the  last 
of  May  or  the  first  of  June. 
At  this  time  the  unprotected 
larvae  crawl  about  over  the 
tree,  looking  for  a  place  to 
settle.  This  is  the  time 
when  they  should  be  at- 
tacked. The  young  larvae 
may  be  readily  destroyed  by 
almost  any  contact  insecti- 
cide, such  as  whale-oil  soap 
or  kerosene  emulsion,  if  it 
is  applied  before  they  have 
a  chance  to  form  their  scale 
covering. 

San  Jose  scale  (Aspidiotus 
perniciosus,  Comstock).  The 
San  Jose  scale  belongs  to 
the  category  of  sucking  in- 
sects, and  takes  its  food  in 
a  liquid  form  by  means  of 
a  long,  bristlelike  proboscis 
inserted  into  leaf  or  limb  or 
fruit,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Its  habit  of  feeding  renders  it  immune  to  treatment  with  arsenical 
poisons,  which  must  be  taken  internally  to  be  effective.  As  the  in- 
sect is  powerless  of  itself  to  extend  its  sphere  of  infestation  from  its 
own  immediate  habitat,  and  as  the  fruit  is  infested  directly  from  the 
tree,  it  follows  that  the  destruction  of  the  scale  on  the  tree  removes 
simultaneously  the  danger  to  the  tree  and  that  to  the  fruit.    This 


Fig.  79.    Oyster-shell  scale.    (Courtesy  of 
Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station) 


176 


THE  APPLE 


is  accomplished  through  the  agency  of  contact  sprays  applied 
externally.  Scale-extirpative  measures  are  most  successfully  ap- 
plied in  the  winter,  for  the  reason  that  the  trees  are  then  dormant. 
Powerful  contact  poisons,  because  of  their  strength  and  causticity, 
cannot  be  used  when  the  trees  are  in  foliage. 

History.  As  the  term  "  scale  "  suggests,  the  insects  are  pro- 
tected by  a  waxy  excretion  under  cover  of  which  they  feed  and 
breed.  Save  for  a  few  hours  after  birth,  during  which  they  crawl 
about,  the  females  pass  their  entire  existence  under  this  covering. 

The  males,  after  several 
molts,  leave  the  scale 
casings  as  fragile  two- 
winged  flies  and  enjoy 
an  ephemeral  span  of 
liberty.  In  this  brief  sea- 
son before  death  they 
unite  with  the  scale- 
imprisoned  females. 

The  San  Jose  scale 
passes  the  winter  in  the 
half-grown  stage  under 
the  small,  black,  circu- 
lar scales.  Individual 
scales  are  no  larger  than 
the  diameter  of  an  ordi- 
nary pin,  and  in  small 
numbers  are  so  insig- 
nificant as  to  be  invisi- 
ble to  all  save  the  eye  trained  to  observe  them.  Very  early  in  the 
spring  the  males  pupate,  emerging  soon  after  to  unite  with  the 
females,  which  by  then  have  arrived  at  the  proper  stage  for 
complementary  reproduction.  In  about  three  weeks  or  a  month 
the  young  of  the  first  brood  appear.  These  are  borne  alive  by 
the  mother  insect  without  an  intermediate  egg  stage.  Parturition 
continues  several  weeks  before  the  female  dies. 

The  newly  born  young,  light  yellow  in  color,  crawl  about  several 
hours  before  settling  down  in  their  fixed  positions.  The  long 
sucking  tube  is  inserted  into  the  tissues  of  the  plant,  and  the 


Fig.  80.    San  Jose  scale  (enlarged).    (Courtesy 
of  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station) 


INSECTS 


i/7 


formation  of  the  scale  begins.    This,  at  first,  is  white,  but  changes 
in  color  through  successive  molts  to  gray  or  black. 

Each  circular  scale  is  surmounted  at  the  apex  by  a  nipple.  In 
the  elongated  males  the  nipple  is  also  present,  but  near  the  anterior 
end.  The  conformation  of  this  nipplelike  marking  is  characteristic 
of  the  San  Jose  scale  and  differentiates  it  from  other  species  which 
otherwise  outwardly  resemble  it.    The  size  of  both  sexes  materially 


FlG.  8l.    Result  of  scale  injury 

Trees  which  had  to  be  dehorned  owing  to  the  work  of  the  San  Jose  scale.    (Courtesy  of 
A.  1..  Stene,  Rhode  Island) 

increases  with  age,  and  the  male  assumes  an  elongated  shape. 
Each  generation  requires  from  thirty-three  to  forty  days  from  the 
emergence  of  the  larvae  of  one  brood  to  the  emergence  of  the 
larvae  of  its  progeny.  The  average  period  of  oviposition  of  a  female 
being  about  six  weeks,  there  is  consequently  a  well-defined  over- 
lapping of  summer  broods. 

Since  the  female  never  leaves  its  scale  covering,  it  is  evident 
that  the  spread  of  the  insects  from  one  plant  to  another  and  from 


178  THE  APPLE 

one  premise  to  another  must  be  effected  artificially.  Scale  infesta- 
tions are  usually  set  up  locally  by  the  removal  of  the  crawling  young 
from  their  birthplaces  to  other  places  on  the  legs  and  bodies  of 
larger  insects  and  on  the  persons  and  clothes  of  orchard  workers, 
or  by  birds,  plow  animals,  and  possibly,  for  short  distances,  by 
high  winds.  Scale-infested  nursery  stock  is  the  commonest  cause 
of  long-distance  infestations.  Thus  it  may  readily  be  seen  how  im- 
portant it  is  to  protect  oneself  by  guarding  against  the  introduction 
of  nursery  stock  from  infested  territory. 

Allowing  forty  days  to  a  generation,  five  full  generations  of  this 
scale  are  easily  possible  in  the  214  days  from  April  1  to  Octo- 
ber 31.  In  all  probability  there  are  more.  Marlatt,1  estimating 
200  females  as  the  offspring  of  a  single  mother  of  the  first  gen- 
eration, shows  a  possible  progeny  of  3,216,080,400  at  the  fifth 
brood.  These  figures  offer  some  explanation  of  the  almost  com- 
plete annihilation  in  a  single  season  of  entire  orchards  where 
conditions  have  been  favorable  for  the  multiplication  of  the  scale. 

Characteristic  injury  of  the  San  Jose  scale.  The  effect  of  the 
feeding  of  many  scale  insects  is  the  slow  sapping  of  the  life  of 
the  tree,  or,  in  the  case  of  fruit,  a  scurfy  appearance,  vivid  discol- 
oration, and  consequent  depreciation  or  worthlessness  as  a  market 
product.  On  smooth  bark  that  is  slightly  infested,  there  is  a  red- 
dish or  purplish  discoloration  surrounding  the  insects,  which  ex- 
tends through  the  bark  to  the  wood  proper.  The  sucking  of  the 
insects  results  in  a  pitted,  indented  twig  or  limb.  In  heavy  infes- 
tations the  scales  overlap  each  other,  literally  incrusting  the  bark 
so  that  it  cannot  be  seen  at  all  and  giving  the  limbs  the  appear- 
ance of  having  been  dusted  over  with  ashes.  On  a  badly  infested 
tree  in  midsummer  one  can  see  with  the  naked  eye  thousands  of 
the  yellow  young  crawling  about. 

The  apples  themselves  offer  tempting  conditions  to  the  crawling 
larvae  and  are  freely  infested  where  scale  is  present  on  the  tree. 
Even  a  few  scales  will  discolor  the  skin  of  an  apple,  and  a  mod- 
erate infestation  will  stultify  the  growth,  often  leaving  the  apple 
cracked  and  misshapen. 

Treatment.  The  San  Jose  scale  is  most  successfully  destroyed 
in  the  late  fall  or  winter  months.    The  tree  is  then  dormant,  and 

1  C.  L.  Marlatt,  entomologist,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


INSECTS  179 

therefore  immune  from  spray  injury.  Spraying  may  be  safely  done 
at  any  time  after  the  leaves  are  off  until  just  before  the  blooms 
begin  to  open  in  the  spring.  Weather  conditions  usually  are  more 
favorable  in  the  fall ;  among  other  things  there  is  an  absence  of 
the  high  winds  prevailing  in  February  and  March.  For  reasons 
concerned  with  fungous  affections  of  the  apple,  it  would  seem 
more  desirable,  however,  to  apply  a  full-strength  scale  insecticide 
as  late  in  the  spring  as  may  be  done  with  safety  to  the  tree  and 
fruit.  The  fungicidal  value  of  such  an  application  would  continue 
to  be  felt  into  the  period  of  early  development  of  fruit  and  foliage, 
and  act  as  a  preventive  of  the  diseases  that  are  prevalent  both  at 
that  time  and  later.  However,  the  orchardist  should  be  governed 
by  conditions,  only  being  sure  to  give  at  least  one  thorough  spraying 
within  the  time  limits  named  above. 

As  exterminators  of  the  San  Jose  scale,  the  standard  solutions 
of  lime  and  sulphur  have  proved  without  an  equal  and  are  as  cheap 
as  the  other  compounds  sometimes  used.  The  only  other  exter- 
minators worthy  of  mention  are  the  soluble-oil  preparations  and 
kerosene  emulsion.  Of  the  former  a  few,  notably  Scalecide,  have 
done  excellent  work.  But  lime-sulphur  solution  possesses  com- 
posite qualities  which  are  lacking  in  miscible  oils  ;  it  is  both  a 
powerful  insecticide  and  a  fungicide,  the  latter  property  usually 
being  absent  in  the  oil  preparations.  Lime-sulphur  wash  produces 
a  sanitary  condition  of  the  bark,  causes  dead  tissues  and  scales  to 
slough  off,  and  leaves  the  trees  smooth  and  clean. 

Recommendations.  As  a  spray  for  San  Jose  scale  when  the  tree 
is  in  a  dormant  state,  lime  and  sulphur  is  recommended,  the  appli- 
cation to  be  made  from  any  time  after  the  foliage  is  off  until  just 
before  the  blooms  appear.  Any  good  prepared  lime  and  sulphur, 
well  applied,  will  give  the  desired  results.  Nothing  is  superior  to 
the  homemade  article,  though  it  is  comparatively  little  used  because 
the  prepared  solutions  give  practically  the  same  results  without  the 
trouble  and  cost  of  cooking.  The  manufacturers  of  the  commer- 
cial article  generally  recommend  diluting  it  at  a  ratio  of  1  part  lime 
and  sulphur  to  10  parts  water.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  more  thorough  the  application  the  better  the  results.  One  in- 
fested limb  or  twig  left  unsprayed  by  a  careless  workman  may  easily 
reinfest  the  tree  and  its  fruit  before  reproduction  is  suspended. 


180  THE  APPLE 

Badly  infested  trees  should  be  given  two  applications.  Pruning 
should  always  precede  winter  spraying. 

The  prepared  solution,  in  a  proportion  of  i\  gallons  of  lime 
and- sulphur  to  50  gallons  of  water,  is  a  dependable  spray  to  use 
in  the  summer.  Although  too  weak  to  kill  the  protected  scale 
insects,  it  is  caustic  enough  to  kill  by  contact  all  that  are  crawling 
or  otherwise  unprotected. 

The  type  of  nozzle  best  adapted  for  use  in  this  spraying  is  one 
that  throws  a  medium-fine,  cone-shaped  spray.  High  pressure 
should  be  maintained,  so  that  the  mist  at  close  range  will  possess 
a  penetrating  power. 

Woolly  aphis  (Schizoneura  lanigera,  Hauss).  The  woolly  aphis 
works  injury  both  to  limbs  and  to  trunks,  and  also  to  the  roots. 
It  is  only  the  injury  to  the  roots,  however,  that  demands  specially- 
directed  treatment,  the  limbs  and  trunks  being  readily  freed  from 
this  pest  by  high-pressure  applications  of  diluted  lime  and  sulphur 
during  the  summer.  The  white  cottony  substances  secreted  by 
the  insect  protect  it  against  contact  sprays,  unless  administered 
forcefully. 

The  root  form  of  the  woolly  aphis,  by  reason  of  its  peculiar 
feeding  habits,  damages  the  roots  seriously,  and  not  infrequently 
causes  the  death  of  the  trees. 

Treatment.  The  most  dependable  remedy  yet  discovered  for 
the  root  form  of  the  woolly  aphis  is  kerosene  emulsion.  In  rec- 
ommending it,  however,  an  emphatic  warning  should  be  given : 
the  utmost  care  must  be  taken  thoroughly  to  emulsify  the  kerosene, 
so  that  it  will  not  separate  into  a  free  state.  This  cannot  be  done 
by  merely  stirring  the  constituents  together.  They  should  be 
mixed  in  a  vessel  larger  than  necessary  to  hold  them,  to  allow  for 
the  increase  in  bulk  which  results  from  the  process  of  emulsiTying, 
and  then  be  forcefully  and  continuously  beaten  for  at  least  ten 
minutes.  A  10-per-cent  solution  is  recommended  on  account  of 
the  possible  injury  to  the  trees  from  an  emulsion  carrying  a  greater 
percentage  of  kerosene,  and  it  is  as  effective  as  a  stronger  solution, 
although  the  length  of  time  it  retains  its  strength  is  not  so  lasting. 
If  the  preparation  is  made,  carefully  following  suggestion  here 
given,  and  applied  only  in  the  growing  season,  no  damage  to  the 
tree  or  its  roots  need  be  feared. 


INSECTS  181 

Many  other  remedies  for  the  woolly  aphis  have  been  tested,  but 
none  has  proved  so  effective  as  kerosene  emulsion.  The  odor  of 
kerosene  remains  in  the  soil  several  months  after  application  and 
effectually  prevents  reinfestation. 

Insects  affecting  the  Leaves 

Green-apple  leaf  aphis  (Aphis  pomi,  De  Geer).  The  green-apple 
aphis  is  especially  injurious  to  nursery  stock  and  to  young  trees  in 
the  orchard.  The  sucking  of  the  juices  of  the  leaves,  usually  on 
the  terminal  growth,  causes  them  to  curl,  blacken,  and  wither.  This 
injury  to  the  leaves  is  followed  by  the  stunting  of  the  wood  growth, 
and  on  small  trees  which  have  been  generally  infested,  the  stunting 
effect  is  often  noticeable  for  years  afterwards.  The  fruit  of  bearing 
trees,  when  surrounded  by  aphis-infested  foliage,  practically  ceases 
to  grow,  the  apples  remaining  green,  hard,  and  gnarled  for  some 
time  and  then  dropping. 

Since  the  insects  cannot  be  successfully  combated  after  the  leaves 
have  curled,  the  grower  must  resort  to  preventive  measures. 

Treatment.  The  green-apple  aphis  passes  the  winter  season  in 
the  egg  stage  on  the  limbs  and  twigs  of  apple  trees.  It  is  possible 
to  destroy  the  insects  at  this  stage  and  thus  protect  trees  and  foli- 
age for  the  first  two  or  three  months  of  summer  by  thorough 
sprayings  with  lime-sulphur  solution  in  the  late  winter  or  the 
early  spring. 

Contact  poisons  must  be  used  to  destroy  the  fully  developed 
aphis.  Because  of  the  curling  of  the  leaves  it  is  practically  impos- 
sible to  make  applications  by  means  of  a  sprayer  thorough  enough 
to  reach  the  insects  beneath.  It  is  quite  a  simple  matter  to  treat 
nursery  stock  and  orchard  trees  in  their  first  and  second  years  by 
dipping  the  infested  foliage  in  a  vessel  filled  with  an  efficient  con- 
tact poison  and  carried  from  tree  to  tree  by  hand.  This  is  simple, 
rapid,  and  more  thorough  than  any  spraying  could  possibly  be. 
With  the  disappearance  of  the  aphids,  growth  is  renewed  and  the 
trees  thrive. 

Besides  kerosene  emulsion,  whale-oil  soap,  tobacco  decoctions, 
etc.,  a  manufactured  product  called  "Black  Leaf  40" — a  con- 
centrated solution  of  nicotine  sulphate  —  has  come  into  the  market 


182  THE  APPLE 

recently  and  given  perfect  satisfaction  against  the  aphis.  When 
used  as  a  dip,  as  described  above,  it  is  a  hundred  per  cent  effi- 
cient as  an  aphis  destroyer,  and,  in  addition,  has  a  healthy,  stimu- 
lating effect  on  leaf  growth. 

Leaf  crumpler  (Phycis  indigenella).  In  the  fall  of  the  year  and 
during  the  winter  there  may  be  seen  hanging  from  the  trees  in 
many  orchards  small  clusters  of  brown,  dead  leaves.  On  examina- 
tion it  will  be  found  that  these  clusters  of  leaves  are  very  firmly 
attached  to  the  twigs  by  a  cord  made  up  of  numerous  silken  threads. 
Within  the  clusters  and  attached  to  them  in  an  irregular  manner 
by  silken  threads  is  a  peculiar  hornlike  case  variously  curved  and 
tapering  to  an  attenuated  point.  The  case  itself  is  formed  of  simi- 
lar threads  interwoven  with  bits  of  leaves  well  cemented  together ; 
it  is  thickly  lined  with  silk,  and  contains  a  small  brown  larva  about 
one  fourth  of  an  inch  in  length.  This  small  larva,  securely  sealed 
within  its  case,  lives  over  winter  in  its  half -grown  condition  and 
is  ready  to  complete  its  development  in  the  early  spring  by  feeding 
on  the  opening  buds  and  young  leaves.  It  retains  its  winter  home 
as  a  resting  place  between  meals  and,  after  completing  its  growth, 
pupates  within  the  case  and  finally  emerges,  early  in  June,  as  a 
small  ash-gray  moth  with  brown  markings.  Within  a  few  days  the 
moth  begins  laying  eggs,  which  are  hatched  in  about  a  week.  The 
young  larvae  begin  to  feed  at  once,  and  soon  commence  the  con- 
struction of  a  protecting  case,  to  which  additions  are  made  as  they 
increase  in  size.  Leaves  are  drawn  and  fastened  to  the  case  of 
silken  threads,  and  the  worms  are  thus  protected  while  feeding. 
In  the  fall,  when  the  larvae  are  about  half  grown,  they  prepare  for 
winter  by  securely  attaching  the  cases  to  branches  and  fastening 
additional  leaves  to  the  outside  for  further  protection. 

Treatment.  Where  this  insect  is  present  on  small  trees  or  in  a 
nursery,  it  is  possible  to  destroy  large  numbers  by  hand-picking  the 
clusters  of  dead  leaves,  but  for  bearing  orchards  this  would  not  be 
practicable.  If,  in  early  spring,  pushing  buds  are  thoroughly  sprayed 
with  some  arsenical,  the  worms  may  be  caught  when  they  com- 
mence feeding,  but  after  they  have  tied  leaves  together  in  clusters 
they  cannot  be  reached  by  sprays.  The  leaf  crumpler  is  commonly 
present  in  our  orchards,  and  for  this  reason  an  arsenical  should  be 
included  in  the  early  sprays. 


INSECTS  183 

Leaf  roller  (Cacazcia  rosaceana).  There  are  several  species  of 
insects  the  larvae  of  which  tie  leaves  together  or  fold  them  in  vari- 
ous ways  to  form  nests  within  which  they  may  do  their  feeding 
undisturbed,  or  to  which  they  may  retreat  for  rest  between  meals 
when  feeding  on  leaves  outside.  The  clusters  of  partly  eaten  leaves 
turn  brown  and  are  unsightly  evidences  of  the  presence  of  these 
insects.  Where  they  are  numerous,  young  trees  may  be  almost 
entirely  defoliated  and  bearing  trees  greatly  injured. 

The  oblique-banded  leaf  roller  is  reported  as  injurious  in  several 
states,  not  only  to  the  apple  but  to  pear,  plum,  and  peach  trees,  and 
also  to  small  fruit  plants. 

The  leaf  tier,  also  called  the  lesser  apple-leaf  folder  {Tents  mi- 
nut  a),  is  a  widely  distributed  species  that  is  often  very  injurious, 
especially  to  nursery  stock.  It  produces  three  broods,  the  larvae  of 
the  first  brood  folding  young  leaves  longitudinally  and  tying  the 
edges  together  with  silken  threads.  Several  leaves  may  be  tied  to- 
gether, and  if  two  larvae  inhabit  the  same  cluster  the  whole  cluster 
may  be  involved.  The  leaves,  which  are  in  part  skeletonized  and 
in  part  eaten  through,  soon  turn  brown  and  readily  make  apparent 
the  extent  of  the  injury.  The  larvae  pupate  within  the  leaf  clusters, 
the  later  broods  effecting  the  same  kind  of  injury,  except  that,  where 
eggs  are  laid  on  fully  developed  leaves,  usually  only  one  edge  of  the 
leaf  is  turned  in  to  form  the  nest.  Moths  which  appear  in  the  fall 
live  over  winter  and  deposit  eggs  on  the  opening  buds  in  spring. 

Leaf  skeletonizer  (Pempelia  Hammondi).  This  insect  is  common 
in  orchards  east  of  the  Rockies.  The  brown,  skeletonized  leaves 
are  often  very  conspicuous,  particularly  late  in  summer.  The  injury 
is  done  by  the  larvae  of  small  moths,  which  appear  in  spring  and 
deposit  eggs  on  the  leaves.  The  moth  has  a  wing  expanse  of  about 
half  an  inch  and  is  of  a  dark-brown  color  relieved  by  two  light-gray 
bands  across  each  fore  wing. 

The  larvae  spin  thin  silken  webs,  under  which  they  work,  and 
often  draw  neighboring  leaves  together  but  do  not  fold  them  down, 
as  does  the  leaf  crumpler.  They  eat  the  upper  epidermis  and  the 
pulp,  leaving  the  lower  epidermis  and  the  network  of  veins.  They 
are  transformed  to  pupae  on  the  leaves  under  the  webs,  in  which 
stage  they  pass  the  winter.  There  are  two  broods,  and  in  the  South 
probably  three. 


1 84  THE  APPLE 

As  the  larvae  feed  quite  openly,  this  pest  should  be  easily  kept 
in  control  in  well-sprayed  orchards.  The  fact  that  most  of  the  in- 
jury is  done  rather  late  in  summer,  after  early  applications  have 
been  mostly  washed  off,  suggests  that  a  midsummer  spray  would 
probably  be  most  effective. 

Nursery  trees  and  young  orchards  frequently  suffer  more  from  this 
insect  than  bearing  orchards,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  often  less 
carefully  sprayed.  All  leaf-eating  insects  take  as  kindly  to  young 
trees  as  to  old.  Young  trees  need  all  their  leaves  in  order  to  make 
satisfactory  growth,  just  as  bearing  trees  need  the  full  leaf  com- 
plement in  order  to  perfect  their  crops.  This  is  sufficient  reason 
for  urging  the  careful  spraying  of  all  young  trees  before  the  need 
becomes  too  urgent. 

Canker  worm.  There  are  two  common  species  of  this  pest  at- 
tacking fruit  trees  —  the  spring  and  the  fall  cankerworm.  They 
differ  somewhat  in  their  history,  but  the  general  treatment  is  the 
same.  The  larvae  when  full  grown  drop  to  the  ground  and  pupate 
in  the  soil.  The  female  adult  has  no  wings,  and  in  order  to  reach 
the  branches  to  lay  its  eggs  it  must  crawl  up  the  trunk  of  the  tree. 
The  fruit-grower  can  take  advantage  of  this  fact  and  place  bands 
of  sticky  substances,  such  as  Tanglefoot,  around  the  tree  trunks. 
An  equally  effective  and  perhaps  less  expensive  remedy,  since  it 
can  be  used  for  a  great  many  leaf-eating  insects,  is  a  poison  spray 
applied  early  in  the  summer. 

Fall  webworm.  The  fall  webworm  is  an  insect  somewhat  simi- 
lar in  habits  to  the  tent  caterpillar,  but  appears  in  large  numbers 
only  late  in  the  season.  It  spins  its  web  at  the  tips  of  the  branches, 
covering  the  leaves  on  which  the  young  larvae  are  to  feed. 

This  insect  can  be  destroyed  in  the  same  way  as  the  tent  cater- 
pillar. Since  the  web  is  at  the  tip  of  the  branches,  it  can  frequently 
be  cut  off  and  burned.  Spraying  with  lead  arsenate  or  Paris  green 
is  also  effective. 

Palmer  worm.  Another  fruit-eating  insect,  which  has  appeared 
in  conspicuous  numbers  during  June  throughout  the  fruit  belt  in 
western  New  York  and  was  quite  destructive  in  unsprayed  orchards, 
is  the  palmer  worm.  It  was  reported  that  in  some  neglected  plant- 
ings in  Orleans  County  as  many  as  half  or  more  of  the  young 
apples  were  eaten  into  by  these  active  little  caterpillars.    It  is  of 


INSECTS 


185 


interest  to  note  that  this  species  overran  many  orchards  in  this  same 
region  during  1900  and,  because  of  its  large  numbers  and  destruc- 
tiveness  to  the  young  fruit,  created  quite  a  little  consternation  among 
growers.  This  is  the  fourth  time  that  this  pest  has  attracted  atten- 
tion by  its  injurious  work,  the  earlier  outbreaks  having  occurred 
during  1 791  and  1853.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  short  time  be- 
tween its  last  two  appearances  does  not  indicate  a  change  in  habits 
and  that  attacks  are  to  occur  at  more  frequent  intervals.  Whatever 
the  future  may  have  in  store,  it  is  gratifying  to  record  that  orchards 
thoroughly  sprayed  for  the  codling  moth  have 
suffered  little  or  no  injury  from  palmer  worms. 

Tent  caterpillar.  The  tent  caterpillar  is  prev- 
alent in  the  apple  orchard,  but  can  be  easily 
controlled.  Everyone  knows  its  characteristic 
silken  nest,  found  usually  in  a  fork  of  the  tree 
formed  by  two  large  branches.  The  caterpillar 
retires  to  this  when  the  weather  is  inclement, 
or  when  it  is  through  with  its  feeding.  This 
pest  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  tent  with 
kerosene  and  burning  it,  or  on  its  first  appear- 
ance by  a  regular  spraying  of  the  leaves  for 
other  leaf-eating  insects. 

Apple-leaf  trumpet-miner.  The  apple-leaf 
trumpet-miner  is  an  insect  of  recent  appearance 
which  has  caused  considerable  alarm  among  orchardists.  As  it 
lives  most  of  its  life  between  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  the 
leaves,  where  it  cannot  be  reached  either  by  contact  or  poison 
sprays,  it  is  a  difficult  insect  to  control.  Fortunately,  it  does  not 
occur  in  very  large  numbers  until  rather  late  in  the  summer,  when 
most  of  the  work  of  the  leaves  is  over. 

Brown-tail  moth.  Two  insects  that  have  received  little  notice 
except  in  eastern  New  England,  but  are  likely  soon  to  compel 
attention  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  are  the  brown-tail 
moth  and  the  gypsy  moth. 

The  brown-tail  moth  is  a  common  European  pest  of  fruit  and 
shade  trees,  and  has  been  an  object  of  interest  to  gardeners  from 
the  earliest  times.  Throughout  Europe  it  is  known  as  the  "com- 
mon caterpillar,"  and  accounts  of  its  habits  and  periodical  ravages 


Egg  mass  of  the  tent 

caterpillar  found  on  the 

twigs  of  the  trees 


1 86  THE  APPLE 

are  to  be  found  in  nearly  all  European  works  on  entomology  and 
horticulture.  It  made  its  way  accidentally  to  Somerville,  Massachu- 
setts, in  the  early  nineties,  —  probably  in  a  shipment  of  roses  from 
Holland,  —  multiplied,  spread,  and  is  now  generally  disseminated 
over  eastern  New  England. 

Damage  by  the  brown-tail  moth.  While  at  first  a  pest  only  of 
the  pear  and  other  fruit  trees,  the  brown-tail  moth  has  now  adapted 
itself  to  various  species  of  forest  trees,  notably  the  oaks.  In  the 
spring,  as  soon  as  the  buds  unfold,  the  young  caterpillars  begin 
to  feed  and,  where  numerous,  completely  strip  even  large  trees. 
When  the  food  supply  gives  out  they  swarm  forth  along  fences, 
walks,  etc.  in  search  of  other  foliage.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
gypsy  moth,  all  the  destructive  work  of  the  brown-tail  moth  is 
done  by  its  caterpillar. 

Whenever  these  insects  come  in  contact  with  human  flesh,  they 
produce  a  severe  and  painful  irritation,  which  is  apparently  due 
to  some  poisonous  substance  in  the  hairs,  and  also,  perhaps,  to  the 
finely  barbed  and  brittle  hairs  themselves.  So  severe  is  this  affec- 
tion that  in  many  cases  people  have  been  made  seriously  ill  by  it. 
The  best  remedy  for  it  is  the  liberal  use  of  cooling  lotions  or  the 
free  use  of  common  vaseline. 

History  of  the  brown-tail  moth.  The  moth.  The  moths  are 
pure  white  on  the  wings,  but  the  female  has  a  conspicuous  bunch 
of  brown  hair  at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  hence  the  name  "  brown- 
tail  moth."  The  female  has  a  wing  expanse  of  about  i|-  inches, 
that  of  the  male,  which  is  slender-bodied,  being  slightly  less. 
Both  the  male  and  the  female  fly  mainly  by  night,  and  are  greatly 
attracted  to  lights. 

The  egg.  The  egg  mass  of  the  brown-tail  moth  somewhat  re- 
sembles that  of  the  gypsy  moth,  but  is  laid  on  the  underside  of 
a  leaf,  —  seldom  on  a  tree  trunk,  —  and  is  smaller,  more  elongated, 
and  of  a  brighter  reddish-brown  color.  From  July  1 5  to  the  end 
of  the  month  the  white  moths  lay  their  eggs  in  brown,  hair-covered 
masses  on  the  leaves  near  the  top  of  the  trees.  Each  egg  cluster 
contains  about  300  eggs,  closely  packed  in  a  mass  about  |  inch 
long  and  i  inch  wide. 

Hie  eater-pillar.  The  eggs  hatch  during  August,  and  the  young 
caterpillars  begin  to  feed  in  clusters  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 


PLATE    II.    LIFE   HISTORY  OF  THE  BROWN-TAIL  MOTH 


/.  egg  cluster:  2,  single  egg  (enlarged  5  diameters)  ;  3,  winter  nests  on  tips  of 

twigs:  ./,  caterpillar;  3,  pupa  (ventral  and  dorsal  view);  6  and  7,  female  and 

male  moths 


INSECTS  187 

leaves,  but  soon  commence  to  spin  their  winter  webs.  A  number 
of  leaves  in  the  vicinity  of  the  egg  clusters  are  drawn  together  and 
carefully  spun  in  with  a  tenacious  silken  web,  which  is  grayish  in 
color,  composed  of  dead  leaves  and  silk,  and  very  hard  to  tear 
apart.  Each  web  contains  about  250  caterpillars  and  varies  in 
length  from  4  to  6  inches.  With  the  approach  of  cold  weather 
the  caterpillars  enter  the  web  and  close  the  exit  holes.  We  then 
have  the  strange  phenomenon  of  a  caterpillar  only  a  quarter  grown 
living  through  the  winter  and  emerging  the  following  spring  to 
complete  its  life.  The  extremes  of  cold  in  Massachusetts,  where 
they  are  so  common,  do  not  seem  to  affect  these  insects  adversely. 
They  emerge  in  the  spring,  usually  early  in  April,  eat  first  the 
buds  and  then  the  blossoms,  and  attack  the  foliage  of  fruit  trees 
as  soon  as  it  develops.  Unlike  the  gypsy-moth  caterpillars  they 
habitually  feed  by  clay.  Stripping  one  tree  of  its  foliage,  they  go  to 
others  and  continue  to  eat  until  full  grown,  when  they  spin  their 
cocoons  within  the  leaves  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  or  some- 
times on  the  tree  trunks.  The  full-grown  caterpillar  is  about 
2  inches  in  length,  with  a  broken  white  stripe  on  both  sides  and 
two  conspicuous  red  dots  on  the  back  near  the  posterior  end. 

The  pupa.  The  caterpillars  pupate  within  their  cocoons,  most 
of  which  are  formed  at  the  tips  of  twigs  within  a  spray  of  leaves, 
but  at  times  are  made  on  house  walls,  fences,  tree  trunks,  etc. 
The  pupa  is  a  compact,  dark-brown  body,  about  |  inch  long,  with 
yellowish-brown  hairs  scattered  over  its  surface.  Pupation  takes 
place  the  latter  part  of  June,  and  the  moths  emerge  about  the 
middle  of  July. 

Distribution.  The  brown-tail  moth  is  known  to  have  spread  at 
least  as  far  to  the  northeast  as  Eastport,  Maine,  and  as  far  south 
as  Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts.  In  western  Massachusetts  it  has 
been  found  at  Amherst,  North  Adams,  and  Clarksburg,  while  the 
eastern  part  of  the  state  from  north  to  south  is  now  quite  solidly 
infested.  The  moth  doubtless  also  exists  in  many  communities  in 
Massachusetts  and  other  states  which  have  not  yet  been  reported. 

The  female  brown-tail  moth,  like  the  male,  is  a  strong,  swift 
flyer,  and  can  carry  her  eggs  long  distances  before  depositing 
them.  For  this  reason,  this  moth  has  spread  much  farther  from 
its  point  of  introduction   in  Massachusetts   than   has  the   gypsy 


1 88  THE  APPLE 

moth.  In  its  flight  it  is  often  aided  by  strong  winds,  and  is  also 
transported  by  steamboats  and  by  electric  and  steam  cars,  to  which 
it  is  attracted  at  night  by  the  lights. 

The  caterpillar  of  the  brown-tail  moth,  when  young,  has  the 
"  spinning  down  "  habit,  and  is  transported  by  vehicles  and  pedes- 
trians. It  is  therefore  essential  that  the  neighborhoods  of  traveled 
highways  be  kept  free  from  this  pest. 

Where  to  look  for  the  brown-tail  moth.  The  egg.  The  gath- 
ering of  leaves  which  bear  egg  masses  is  feasible  only  in  the  case 
of  shrubs  and  young  trees  whose  foliage  may  be  reached  from  the 
ground.  Rose  bushes,  dwarf  fruit  trees,  and  ornamental  shrubs 
may  often  be  cleared  from  the  moth  in  this  way. 

The  caterpillar.  The  winter  webs  or  nests  containing  the  hiber- 
nating caterpillars  are  conspicuous  objects  at  the  tips  of  twigs  from 
October  to  April.  These  webs  should  be  sought  out  and  removed 
by  the  use  of  pole  shears  or  long-handled  pruners,  and  then  care- 
fully collected  and  burned.  It  is  more  satisfactory,  when  possible, 
to  burn  the  webs  in  a  furnace  or  stove,  since  with  an  open  bonfire 
extra  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  none  of  the  webs  escape  with 
a  mere  scorching.  The  work  of  web  destruction  and  gathering 
can  be  carried  on  to  best  advantage  when  a  light  snow  is  on  the 
•ground,  although  it  is  desirable  that  the  work  should  be  done  as 
early  as  possible  after  the  leaves  fall.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  webs  cut  off  and  thrown  on  a  dump  heap,  as  well  as  those 
that  are  beaten  off  by  storms,  will  yield  their  quota  of  caterpillars 
the  following  spring. 

Spraying  is  very  effective  in  the  case  of  brown-tail  moth  cater- 
pillars, which  are  much  less  resistant  to  the  action  of  poison  than 
are  the  gypsy-moth  caterpillars.  For  best  results,  spraying  should 
be  done  as  soon  as  the  foliage  develops  in  the  spring.  From  5  to 
8  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste  to  100  gallons  of  water  is  an 
effective  spray,  or,  if  preferred,  1  pound  of  good  Paris  green  well 
stirred  into  150  gallons  of  water  may  be  applied. 

Such  trees  as  are  free  from  the  moth  may  be  protected  from 
the  caterpillars  which  crawl  from  neighboring  estates  by  apply- 
ing sticky  bands.  The  banding,  however,  will  not  prevent  the 
infestation  of  the  trees  by  the  winged  female  moths,  which  fly 
in  July. 


[NSECTS  189 

The  pupa.  When  the  caterpillars  have  changed  to  pupae  in- 
closed by  their  cocoons,  —  in  which  state  they  are  most  numerous 
the  latter  half  of  June, — they  may  be  gathered  and  placed  in  a 
barrel  covered  with  mosquito  netting,  which  confines  the  moths 
but  allows  the  escape  of  parasites.  The  work  of  gathering  these 
cocoons  is  likely  to  be  attended  by  severe  inflammation  of  the 
skin  from  contact  with  the  nettling  hairs. 

The  moth.  As  already  pointed  out,  the  moths  assemble  in  great 
numbers  around  electric  and  other  lights.  During  the  flying  season 
lamp  posts  are  frequently  covered  with  hundreds,  if  not  thousands, 
of  them,  which  can  be  washed  down  and  killed  by  the  free  use 
of  the  hose. 

Natural  enemies  of  the  brown-tail  moth.  The  brown-tail  moth 
has  natural  enemies  in  the  fungus  Entomopthora  aidicce,  in  various 
parasites,  and  in  the  Calosoma  beetles.  The  fungous  disease  has 
been  found  to  occur  in  this  country  naturally,  and  has  also  been 
propagated  and  spread  artificially.  The  parasites  and  beetles  have 
been  planted  throughout  the  most  thickly  infested  sections  and 
are  spreading  naturally. 

Gypsy  moth.  As  far  back  as  authentic  records  go,  the  gypsy 
moth  has  been  a  destructive  insect  pest  in  Europe  ■ —  at  times  in- 
creasing enormously  and  disastrously,  then  for  other  periods  decreas- 
ing, only  to  increase  again  and  renew  its  extensive  ravages.  At  the 
present  time  it  is  most  numerous  and  destructive  in  southern  Russia. 

Up  to  the  year  1868  a  gypsy  moth  was  not  known  to  exist 
anywhere  within  the  Western  Hemisphere.  In  that  year  the  insect 
was  brought  from  Europe  to  Medford,  Massachusetts.  Escaping, 
it  spread  into  many  cities  and  towns  of  eastern  Massachusetts,  and 
increased  enormously,  until  in  1890  it  became  a  serious  pest  over 
a  large  territory. 

Damage  caused  by  the  gypsy  moth.  The  gypsy-moth  caterpillar 
will  attack  all  fruit,  shade,  and  woodland  trees.  It  shows  a  pref- 
erence for  the  apple,  white  oak,  red  oak,  willow,  and  elm.  It  will 
devour  on  occasion  nearly  every  useful  grass,  plant,  flower,  shrub, 
vine,  bush,  garden  or  field  crop  that  grows  in  Massachusetts.  It 
kills  both  deciduous  and  coniferous  trees,  but  in  its  early  molts 
will  not  feed  on  pines.  Woodlands  assailed  by  it  in  formidable 
numbers  are  stripped  bare  and  many  trees  are  killed.    Where  it 


[9o 


THE  APPLE 


abounds  in  residential  districts,  it  not  only  eats  nearly  everything 
green,  but  swarms  in  caterpillar  form  on  houses,  walks,  and 
verandas,  and  often  enters  dwellings. 

History  of  the  gypsy  moth.  The  moth.  The  gypsy  moth,  like 
all  insects  of  its  class,  exists  in  four  different  forms  during  the 
year.  Between  July  15  and  August  15  the  winged  moths  emerge 
from  the  pupae,  the  date  varying  according  to  the  season  and  time 
of  pupation.     The  male  moth,  which  has  a  slender  body,  varies 


**i 


•TVf*a.^«#"t«: 


Fig.  83.    The  work  of  two  new  insects 

What  the  brown-tail  and  gypsy  moths  are  doing  to  many  New  England  orchards  — 

defoliating  and  killing  the  trees 

Moral :  Beware  of  the  brown-tail  and  gypsy  moths 

from  a  brownish  yellow  to  a  greenish  brown  in  color  and  has 
a  wing  expanse  of  about  ij  inches.  It  flies  actively  by  day  with 
a  peculiar  zigzag  flight. 

The  female  moth,  which  is  heavy-bodied  and  sluggish,  is  nearly 
white  with  numerous  small  black  markings  and  expands  about 
2  inches.  It  does  not  fly,  otherwise  the  spread  of  this  pest  would 
be  far  more  rapid  than  it  is.  After  mating,  the  moths  live  but 
a  short  time,  the  female  dying  after  depositing  her  egg  mass. 
The  winged  moths  take  no  food,  all  damage  to  foliage  being 
caused  by  the  caterpillars. 

The  egg.  The  eggs  of  the  gypsy  moth  are  laid  in  July  and 
August  in  a  yellowish,  hair-covered  mass,  averaging  about  1  }2  inches 


ml 


5 


m 


PLATE   III.    LIFE   HISTORY  OF  THE  GYPSY  MOTH 

/,  egg  cluster:  2,  single  egg  (enlarged  3$  diameters)  :  3,  caterpillar;  4  and  j, 

female  and  male  pupas ;    6  and  7,  female  and  male  adults  :    5.  imported  lion 

beetle  {Calosomn  sycophanta)  eating  a  caterpillar.    (Natural  size,  except  2) 


[NSECTS  191 

long  and  about  ;j  inch  wide.  To  the  eye  the  egg  mass  resembles 
a  small,  tightly  stuffed,  oval,  buff-colored  cushion.  During  the 
winter  the  color  often  fades  to  a  dingy  white.  In  this  mass  the 
eggs,  to  the  average  number  of  500,  are  closely  packed  with 
yellowish  hair  from  the  body  of  the  female.  An  individual  egg 
is  scarcely  as  large  as  a  pinhead,  salmon-colored  when  first  laid, 
but  turning  dark  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks. 

The  caterpillar,  or  larva.  The  eggs  hatch  about  May  1,  and 
each  mass,  or  cluster,  yields  a  swarm  of  small  caterpillars,  most 
of  which  become  fully  grown  by  midsummer.  The  head  of  the 
caterpillar  is  large  in  proportion  to  its  body,  this  being  especially 
noticeable  when  it  is  young.  Its  body  is  decidedly  hairy  through- 
out its  whole  life. 

The  mature  caterpillar  has  a  dusky  or  sooty-colored  body  and 
a  peculiar  marking  which  is  found  on  no  other  New  England 
larva.  Along  the  back,  starting  from  the  head,  which  is  marked 
with  yellow,  is  a  double  row  of  blue  spots  followed  by  a  double 
row  of  red.  This  double  row,  consisting  of  five  pairs  of  blue  and 
six  pairs  of  red  spots,  is  usually  very  noticeable  on  caterpillars 
which  have  attained  a  length  of  1  *  inches  or  more,  but  does  not 
always  show  up  on  the  shorter  caterpillars.  The  mature  caterpillar 
frequently  attains  a  length  of  3  inches. 

The  pupa.  When  fully  grown,  usually  in  July,  the  caterpillar 
spins  a  few  threads  of  silk  as  a  supporting  framework,  casts  its 
skin,  and  changes  into  a  pupa,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  a 
chrysalis.  The  pupa  is  dark  reddish  or  chocolate  in  color  and 
very  thinly  sprinkled  with  light-reddish  hairs.  Unfortunately  it 
resembles  the  pupae  of  certain  other  moths  found  in  Massachusetts, 
and  cannot,  except  by  experts,  be  identified  at  a  glance.  The 
thinly  sprinkled,  light-reddish  hairs  are,  however,  characteristic. 

Distribution.  The  gypsy  moth  spreads  chiefly  during  the  cater- 
pillar stage.  While  the  caterpillars  do  not  crawl  very  far  from 
their  cocoons,  except  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of  food,  they  have 
the  habit,  when  small  and  young,  of  spinning  down  from  trees 
and  falling  on  vehicles,  which  carry  them  from  place  to  place. 
Electric  cars,  pleasure  and  business  vehicles,  bicycles,  and  auto- 
mobiles are  common  means  of  thus  transporting  them,  and  the 
necessity  of  keeping  the  neighborhoods  of  traveled  highways  free 


192  THE  APPLE 

from  the  insect  is  at  once  apparent.  It  has  been  proved  conclu- 
sively that  young  caterpillars  can  also  be  carried  a  great  distance 
by  the  wind,  which  probably  accounts,  in  some  cases,  for  new 
colonies  found  a  long  way  from  any  known  source  of  infestation. 
The  egg  clusters  may  also  be  transported  on  any  of  the  numerous 
objects  on  which  they  are  laid.  Even  freight  cars  that  have  stood 
near  infested  foliage  long  enough  for  the  laying  of  gypsy-moth 
eggs  may  be  the  means  of  spreading  the  pest. 

The  gypsy  moth  now  occurs  in  southern  New  Hampshire,  in 
Massachusetts,  and  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Maine. 

Where  to  look  for  the  gypsy  moth.  The  egg.  From  August 
to  May  the  egg  masses  of  the  gypsy  moth  may  be  found  in  places 
near  which  the  moth  emerged  from  the  pupa  case.  The  female 
moth  deposits  its  eggs  on  tree  trunks,  the  undersides  of  limbs, 
sheltered  crotches  and  holes  in  trees,  hollow  trees,  crevices  in  or 
under  rough  bark,  etc.  The  egg  clusters  are  also  found  on  shrub- 
bery, buildings,  scattered  and  heaped  rubbish,  barrels,  boxes,  and 
similar  objects  standing  out  of  doors,  woodpiles,  stone  piles, 
fences,  walls,  bowlders,  and  the  like.  The  tendency  is  to  deposit 
the  eggs  on  the  lower  or  the  inner  surface  of  an  object.  When 
the  moths  exist  in  large  numbers  they  disregard  all  rules,  and 
their  egg  clusters  may  then  be  found  in  sight  as  well  as  hidden, 
and  in  all  sorts  of  places,  even  within  buildings. 

The  caterpillar.  From  May  to  August  the  caterpillars  may  be 
found  in  various  stages  of  growth,  their  numbers  rapidly  diminishing 
after  July  15.  In  the  spring  the  small  caterpillars  should  be  looked 
for  on  the  foliage,  chiefly  on  the  underside.  As  the  caterpillars 
grow,  they  commence  to  feed  at  night.  During  the  day  they  seek 
shelter,  generally  in  clusters,  on  the  shady  side  of  tree  trunks, 
beneath  large  limbs,  under  rough  or  loose  bark,  in  holes  in  trees, 
under  fence  rails,  in  walls,  stone  heaps,  rubbish  piles  —  in  short, 
in  any  accessible  place  offering  shelter  from  the  sun  and  the  birds. 
The  caterpillars  cast  their  skin  several  times,  the  molted  skins 
being  a  characteristic  sign  of  the  presence  of  the  moth. 

The  pupa.  Gypsy-moth  pupae  are  most  abundant  during  the 
latter  half  of  July.  They  are  to  be  found  in  the  same  places 
chosen  for  the  egg  clusters  and  not  infrequently,  also,  in  the 
foliage  of  trees  and  shrubs. 


INSECTS  193 

The  moth.  The  peculiar  zigzag  flight  of  the  male  moth  has 
already  been  noted.  The  large,  white,  conspicuous  female  moths 
sit  or  crawl  on  tree  trunks,  etc.,  near  their  pupa  cases.  It  is  usu- 
ally the  latter  half  of  July  and  through  August  that  the  females 
lay  their  eggs. 

Gypsy-moth  remedies.  Egg  killing.  With  the  gypsy  moth  no 
single  method  of  destruction  is  more  effective  than  killing  the 
eggs.  The  egg  masses  wherever  accessible  can  be  killed  from 
August  to  May  by  soaking  them  thoroughly  with  creosote  mixture, 
which  may  be  applied  with  a  small  swab  or  paintbrush. 

Caterpillar  destruction.  Spraying  infested  foliage  with  arsenate 
of  lead  at  the  rate  of  10  pounds  to  100  gallons  of  water,  thoroughly 
mixed,  is  very  effective  when  the  caterpillars  are  small.  For  use 
on  trees,  a  pump  mounted  on  a  barrel  tank  or  hogshead  is  desira- 
ble. The  mixture  should  be  applied,  if  possible,  on  a  clear,  dry 
day,  beginning  at  the  top  of  the  trees,  and  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  cover  the  leaves,  rather  slowly,  with  a  fine  mist.  The  foliage 
should  never  be  drenched  with  a  stream  ;  when  the  leaves  begin 
to  drip,  spraying  should  at  once  cease.  The  work  is  most  effective 
when  clone  during  May  and  early  June. 

If  a  strip  of  burlap  or  other  coarse  cheap  cloth  is  tied  about  the 
middle  of  an  infested  tree  trunk  so  that  the  flaps  hang  down,  the 
caterpillars,  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  the  night-feeding  habit, 
will  gather  under  the  cloth  and  may  then  be  destroyed  by  crushing 
or  by  cutting  with  a  sheath  knife.  The  burlaps  should  be  examined 
daily,  or,  if  the  caterpillars  are  in  great  numbers,  several  times  a 
day.  Burlap  can  be  successfully  employed  from  the  latter  half  of 
May  to  the  first  or  middle  of  August,  for  the  caterpillars  will  ordi- 
narily pupate  under  burlap,  and  the  winged  moths  lay  many  eggs 
under  it.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  cloth  band  is  in  no 
sense  a  tree  protector.  Serving  as  a  hiding  place  for  various  in- 
sects, it  is  better  off  the  tree  than  on  unless  it  can  be  attended  to 
and  kept  clean.  At  the  end  of  the  caterpillar  season  all  burlaps 
should  be  removed  and  burned. 

Banding  a  noninfested  tree  with  insect  lime  or  other  sticky  sub- 
stance to  keep  off  the  caterpillars  can  be  made  an  effective  means 
of  protection  if  the  branches  of  the  tree  do  not  interlock  with  those 
of  an  infested  tree,  and  if  the  two  do  not  stand  so  near  together 


194  THE  APPLE 

that  the  small  caterpillars  can  pass  from  one  to  the  other  by  means 
of  their  fine  threads.  A  band,  to  be  effective,  must  remain  sticky. 
When  caterpillars  are  numerous,  in  their  attempt  to  cross  the  band 
they  often  bridge  it  with  their  threads  and  dead  bodies,  so  that 
other  caterpillars  coming  later  are  able  to  ascend  the  tree.  For  this 
reason,  and  in  order  that  the  caterpillars  which  collect  beneath 
may  be  killed,  the  sticky  band  should  be  inspected  frequently. 
If  the  many  caterpillars  which  often  herd  below  the  sticky  bands 
are  not  killed,  they  will  in  time  leave  the  trees  for  shrubbery, 
where  they  are  less  easily  destroyed,  and  there  will  complete 
their  feeding  period  and  be  transformed  into  moths.  Insect  lime, 
Raupenleim,  Tanglefoot,  birdlime,  printer's  ink,  or  even  axle 
grease  are  among  the  materials  most  used  for  banding.  All  may 
be  dangerous  to  the  tree  and  should  be  removed  after  the  cater- 
pillar season  has  passed. 

Destroying pupce  and  moths.  Pupa?  are  commonly  found  under 
the  burlap  and  in  other  places  frequented  by  the  caterpillars.  They 
are  often  massed  under  large  branches  or  in  other  sheltered  places. 
In  similar  locations  the  female  moths  may  be  found  in  numbers. 
Both  forms  of  the  insect  may  be  crushed  by  hand  during  July 
and  August. 

Natural  enemies  of  the  gypsy  moth.  The  gypsy  moth  has  some 
natural  enemies  that  seem  at  the  present  time  to  promise  help  in 
the  warfare  of  destruction.  The  most  important  is  the  wilt  disease, 
or  "  flacherie."  The  disease  occurs  naturally  when  the  caterpillars 
are  in  great  numbers  and  find  feeding  scarce.  It  is  a  bacterial 
disease  which  affects  the  intestinal  canal  of  the  caterpillar  and  soon 
causes  death.  There  are  other  diseases  which  afford  help  at  times, 
but  none  of  any  considerable  importance. 

The  large  carnivorous  ground  beetles,  such  as  Calosoma  sp., 
and  other  parasites  of  the  gypsy  moth  have  now  been  planted  over 
all  the  worst-infested  sections,  and  it  is  believed  that  they  are  in- 
creasing in  numbers  and  actually  becoming  acclimated.  Since  all 
these  parasites  are  helps  to  the  suppression  of  the  gypsy  moth, 
their  appearance  should  be  studied  so  that  they  may  not  be  destroyed 
by  mistake. 


INSECTS  195 

Insects  affecting  the  Blossoms 

Bud  moth  (Tmetocera  ocellana).  The  eye-spotted  bud  moth  is 
recorded  as  injurious  in  most  of  the  Eastern  states,  in  Michigan, 
and  in  Missouri.  The  moths  of  this  species  appear  in  June  and 
deposit  eggs  singly  on  the  undersurfaces  of  leaves.  The  larvae  eat 
the  lower  epidermis  and  the  pulp,  thus  skeletonizing  the  leaves. 
They  spin  thin  webs  under  which  they  work  until  early  fall,  when 
they  move  to  twigs,  where,  in  any  rough  or  angular  place  in  the 
bark  or  about  a  bud,  they  spin  a  silken  case  to  which  they  retire 
for  the  winter.  In  the  spring  the  half-grown  larvae  emerge  and  eat 
into  the  buds  or  tie  together  the  young  leaves  or  flowers,  forming 
nests  within  which  they  work.  Late  in  May  they  pupate  within 
these  clusters,  and  soon  the  moths  appear.  There  is  thus  but 
one  brood. 

Where  numerous,  these  insects  do  very  serious  damage.  The 
destruction  of  flower  buds  cuts  short  the  fruit  crop,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  leaf  buds  induces  irregular  growth  and  interferes  with  the 
symmetry  of  the  trees. 

The  apple-bud  moth  (Eccopsis  malana).  Saunders,1  in  his  work 
on  injurious  insects,  describes  another  species,  which  he  says  has 
seriously  injured  the  apple  trees  in  the  orchards  of  northern  Illinois 
by  devouring  the  terminal  buds  on  the  branches. 

Pear  thrips.  In  its  appearance  and  habits  the  thrips  is  quite 
different  from  the  other  insects  which  our  growers  have  to  combat. 
The  adult  is  a  small,  dark,  flylike  creature,  which  seeks  the  buds 
as  they  are  opening  and  attacks  the  tenderest  of  the  flower  parts. 
The  destructive  work  of  the  insect  is  largely  done  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  flowers,  and  trees  that  are  severely  injured  have 
at  the  time  of  blossoming  the  appearance  of  suffering  from  blossom 
blight.  Affected  orchards  sustain  losses  in  yields  according  to  the 
severity  of  the  attacks.  In  the  worst-infested  areas  one  may  fre- 
quently observe  plantings  which  show  total  losses  in  fruit  yields. 

Spraying  experiments  indicate  that  this  pest  may  be  effec- 
tively combated.  Growers  interested  in  the  work  of  this  new  pest 
are  referred  to  Bulletin  No.  343  of  the  Geneva  (New  York) 
Experiment   Station. 

1  William  Saunders,  F.  R.  S.  C,  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits. 


196  THE  APPLE 

Insects  affecting  the  Fruit 

Codling  moth  (Cydia  pomonella,  L.).  Of  the  insects  preying 
directly  upon  the  fruit  of  the  apple  the  codling  moth,  or  apple 
worm,  is  the  most  important  economically.  Because  of  its  universal 
distribution  it  is  well  known  both  to  producer  and  to  consumer. 
To  the  latter,  only  the  result  of  the  insect's  injury  is  familiar,  the 
worm  itself  usually  having  long  since  forsaken  the  apple.  When 
one  encounters  an  apple  tunneled  by  cavities  with  blackened  and 
bitter  walls,  and  partially  filled  with  the  blackish  frass,  or  castings, 
of  the  worm,  he  may  know  that  the  agent  of  these  hidden  and 
distasteful   mining  operations  is  the  larva  of  the  codling  moth. 


Fig.  84.    Codling-moth  adults.    (Department  of  Entomology,  Cornell  University) 

But  it  is  to  the  grower  that  the  insect  is  best  known  and  most 
unwelcome.  To  him  the  moth  represents  steadily  cumulative  losses 
throughout  the  whole  growing  season.  A  large  percentage  of  the 
apples  which  fall  prematurely  from  May  until  harvest  time  are  vic- 
tims of  the  voracity  of  the  codling-moth  larva.  One  has  but  to 
keep  a  record  of  the  windfalls  from  a  single  unsprayed  tree  for  a 
season,  classifying  them  according  to  the  initial  cause  of  their  fall, 
to  realize  that  the  apple  worm  is  a  guest  with  an  appetite  that  is 
costly  to  satisfy.  Nor  does  its  havoc  stop  here.  Not  only  does  it 
cut  off  many  apples  from  all  possibility  of  maturity  but  it  so  affects 
others  that  cling  to  the  tree  that  they  are,  at  best,  unfit  for  sale 
except  as  culls. 

History  of  the  codling  moth.  In  order  successfully  to  combat 
an  insect,  it  is  necessary  to  know  its  history,  for  most  insects  are 


PLATE   IV.   THE  CODLING   MOTH   AND  ITS  WORK* 
(After  a  drawing  by  L.  H.  Joutel.   Courtesy  of  the  New  York  State  Museum) 


INSECTS  197 

more  vulnerable  at  one  stage  of  their  development  than  at  others. 
The  history  of  the  codling  moth  from  egg  to  adult  is  in  four  stages 
—  the  egg,  the  larva  (or  worm),  the  pupa,  and  the  moth.  Normally 
there  are  from  one  to  three  broods. 

The  adult.  The  adult  insect  is  a  moth  having  a  wing  spread  of 
from  \  to  \  inch.  The  fore  wings  are  striped  transversely  with 
alternate  dark  gray  and  brown.  The  hind  wings  have  the  same 
general  grayish-brown,  nearly  saffron  coloring  of  the  body.  The 
moth  is  seminocturnal  in  its  habits,  confining  its  activities  to  dusk 
and  early  dawn.  For  this  reason,  and  because  of  the  manner  in 
which  its  color  blends  with  its  natural  surroundings,  it  is  nearly 
invisible  and  is  seldom  detected. 

The  egg.  The  egg-laying  season  begins  in  the  early  spring  sev- 
eral days  after  the  moth  emerges  from  hibernation.  It  is  renewed 
at  intervals,  coincident  with  the  maturing  of  successive  broods, 
until  well  into  September,  reaching  its  zenith  with  the  third  brood. 
There  is  a  partial  overlapping  of  generations,  which  renders  egg- 
laying  more  or  less  continuous.  Approximately  85  per  cent  of 
the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves.  There  is 
much  variation  in  the  number  of  eggs  deposited,  the  average  being 
about  50,  and  also  in  the  length  of  life  of  the  moths. 

The  eggs  are  laid  singly,  and  when  first  deposited  are  of  a  milky- 
white  color,  circular  in  outline,  of  about  the  diameter  of  a  pinhead, 

*  A,  two  small  apples,  the  end  of  one  and  the  side  of  the  other  wormy.  The  former  is  the 
most  common  method  of  injury  by  apple  worms  or  larvae  of  the  first  brood,  while  the  other 
is  very  characteristic  of  larvae  of  the  second  brood,  and  is  usually  confined  to  points  where  fruits 
touch  or  where  a  leaf  and  apple  adhere.  B,  group  of  blossoms  ready  to  spray  and  showing 
conditions  just  after  the  petals  drop.  Note  that  the  green  sepal  lobes  are  widely  expanded 
or  drooping,  and  that  conditions  are  therefore  favorable  for  filling  the  calyx  cup  with  poison. 
C,  three  mature  apples  showing  the  work  of  the  apple-worm  (or  codling-moth)  larva  about 
the  core,  at  the  blossom  end,  and  an  irregular  cavity  at  the  side,  a  point  where  the  full-grown 
larvae  frequently  escape.  D,  a  piece  of  bark  removed  from  the  tree  and  showing  on  the 
undersurface  the  numerous  cocoons  in  which  the  insects  hibernate  and  undergo  their  trans- 
formations from  the  caterpillar  to  the  pupa  and  moth.  /,  moth  with  wings  expanded,  natural 
size.  2,  moth  resting  on  young  apple,  side  view.  _?,  moth  resting  on  leaf,  seen  from  above. 
4,  a  portion  of  a  pinkish  apple  worm  or  larva  in  a  wormy  apple,  j,  cocoon,  seen  from  the 
underside  and  showing  the  hole  made  by  a  woodpecker  in  search  of  the  apple  worm  or 
larva.  6,  cell  on  the  underside  of  the  bark  containing  a  codling-moth  worm  or  larva.  Note 
its  nearly  doubled  position.  7,  upper  surface  of  bark  showing  hole  made  by  a  woodpecker. 
The  same  condition  seen  from  the  inner  surface  is  represented  at  j.  5,  empty  cocoon. 
9,  group  of  old  cocoons,  zo,  two  cocoons  in  which  apple  worms  or  larvae  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  fungus.  //,  oval  excavation  in  the  bark  made  by  the  apple  worm  or  larva  prior 
to  spinning  its  cocoon.  /2,  newly  made  cocoon,  the  silken  case  being  nearly  obscured  by 
particles  of  bark. 


198  THE  APPLE 

and  with  a  slightly  convex  upper  surface.  When  the  eggs  have 
attained  a  certain  stage  of  incubation  (variable  according  to  season 
and  temperature)  a  reddish  ring  appears  around  the  center,  which 
later  changes  to  a  black  spot.  The  egg  is  then  almost  ready  to 
hatch.  Early  in  the  season  eggs  require  eight  or  ten  days  for 
hatching,  but  as  the  season  advances  fewer  days  are  required,  the 
average  being  about  five  days  in  June,  July,  and  August. 

The  larva.  From  the  egg  emerges  the  larva,  the  length  of 
which  is  then  only  about  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch.  It  proceeds 
almost  at  once  to  crawl  to  the  nearest  apple,  sometimes  selecting 
as  a  site  for  its  entrance  an  abrasion  or  break  in  the  skin,  but 
usually  the  blossom  end.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  larva 
first  feeding  on  the  leaf,  especially  when  it  was  hatched  some 
distance  from  an  apple.  Most  of  the  invasions  of  the  fruit  are 
effected  through  the  calyces,  as  these  afford  the  least  natural 
resistance,  but  the  larvae  also  often  penetrate  the  unbroken  skin 
of  the  fruit.  They  usually  protect  themselves  by  a  network  of 
silken  threads  spun  at  the  place  of  entrance. 

The  color  of  the  young  larva  is  white  at  first,  but  becomes  pink- 
ish as  it  increases  in  size.  There  are  three  pairs  of  true  legs  on 
the  anterior  part  of  the  body  and  five  pairs  of  prolegs  on  the 
abdominal  segments. 

As  the  larva  feeds,  it  increases  rapidly  in  size.  The  castings 
produced  along  the  journey  into  the  fruit  are  at  first  thrust  back- 
wards and  out  of  the  opening  made  by  entering.  This  mass  is 
held  together  by  silken  threads.  Later,  as  the  larva  advances  into 
the  apple,  generally  toward  the  core,  the  castings  are  pushed  into 
the  channels  which  it  has  traced.  Full  growth  is  attained  in  ap- 
proximately three  weeks  (a  variable  item),  and  the  larva  is  ready 
to  leave  the  fruit.  When  full  grown,  it  measures  from  |  to  |  inch 
in  length. 

When  ready  to  make  its  exit  from  the  fruit,  it  either  makes  use 
of  the  entrance  channels  or  eats  its  way  to  liberty  at  another  point. 

When  apples  are  infested  before  they  are  half  grown  or  soon 
after,  they  generally  fall  from  the  tree.  Usually,  however,  the  fruit 
does  not  fall  until  after  the  emergence  of  the  larva.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  season  most  of  the  infested  fruit  holds  to  the  tree,  but 
is  of  greatly  lessened  value,  if  not  entirely  worthless. 


INSECTS 


199 


The  pupa.  After  leaving  the  apple  the  larva  seeks  a  favorable 
place  in  which  to  spin  its  cocoon  for  pupation.  Sometimes  it 
lowers  itself  directly  to  the  ground  by  means  of  the  silken  thread 
it  can  so  prodigally  spin,  pupating  in  litter  or  some  other  protec- 
tion found  on  the  ground.  Usually,  however,  it  crawls  down  the 
limbs  of  the  tree  to  the  trunk,  hiding  itself  under  partially  loosened 
bark  or  in  crevices  and  cracks  in  the  wood,  and  spinning  about 
itself  an  elongated,  tightly  woven  cocoon.  In  this  silken  sleeping 
shroud  are  undergone  the  subtle,  invisible  transformations  from 
larva  to  pupa  and  from 
pupa  to  imago. 

The  pupa  itself  is  a 
contracted  embodiment  of 
the  larva.  The  average 
length  is  about  half  an 
inch,  and  the  color  ranges 
from  light  to  dark  brown. 

The  length  of  pupation 
varies  greatly.  The  aver- 
age time  is  from  two  weeks 
to  sixteen  or  eighteen 
days.  Eventually  the  pupa 
works  its  way  from  the 
cocoon  as  an  adult  moth, 
and  after  a  brief  interval  the  female  begins  to  deposit  eggs  for 
another  brood.  The  larvae  entering  cocoons  in  the  fall  do  not  at 
once  pupate,  but  hibernate  as  larvae,  pupating  at  the  approach  of 
warm  weather  the  following  spring. 

Treatment.  It  is  evident  that  control  of  the  codling  moth  must 
be  effected  chiefly  by  measures  prohibitive  of  the  entrance  of  the 
larvae  into  the  fruit.  The  best  means  of  securing  this  end  is  the 
use  of  poison  sprays.  There  are  several  arsenicals  which  have  been 
and  are  still  being  used,  but  from  the  point  of  view  of  efficiency, 
economy,  and  harmlessness  to  foliage  and  fruit,  arsenate  of  lead  is 
doubtless  superior  to  all.  Clean,  smooth-barked  trees  and  ground 
free  of  rubbish  also  unquestionably  help  the  orchardist  by  depriving 
the  worms  of  their  pupating  quarters,  but  these  conditions  are  not 
essential  —  only  desirable. 


Fig.  85.    Pupae  of  the  codling  moth..  (Depai 
ment  of  Entomology,  Cornell  University) 


200  THE  APPLE 

When  to  spray.  The  first  spraying  is  all-important,  and  upon 
its  timeliness  and  thoroughness  depend  the  grower's  chances  of 
success.  When  the  calyx  cups  have  been  filled  with  poison  and 
the  calyx  lobes  have  closed  upon  it,  the  fortification  of  the  apple 
against  infestation  in  that  direction  is  complete,  for  the  first 
food  taken  by  the  young  larva  as  it  seeks  to  enter  will  result 
in   death. 

First  spraying.  Following  the  shedding  of  the  bloom,  the  young 
apple  soon  reaches  the  proper  condition  for  the  first  spraying.  The 
outer  cup  is  so  shaped  as  to  catch  and  retain  the  liquid  poison,  but 
the  entrance  to  the  inner  cup  is  obstructed  by  the  pistils  and  their 
encircling  stamen  bars.  It  is  plain  that  it  is  not  enough  merely  to 
fill  the  outer  calyx  cup.  The  spray  must  be  applied  with  sufficient 
pressure  and  volume  to  force  itself  past  the  obstructing  stamen 
bars,  otherwise  maximum  good  results  will  not  be  effected. 

The  experimental  work  of  the  past  two  years  has  demonstrated 
that  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  applying  the  spray  to  the  fruit 
with  a  nozzle  throwing  a  heavy,  coarse  spray  under  high  pressure 
—  from  200  to  300  pounds.  Only  in  this  way  can  the  inner  calyx 
container  be  impregnated  with  poison.  The  fruit  clusters  at  this 
stage  point  up  and  down  and  to  all  parts  of  the  compass,  and  to 
drive  the  spray  directly  and  forcibly  into  them  the  nozzle  must  be 
carried  to  all  parts  of  the  tree  and  be  used  at  all  angles.  On 
tall  trees  the  bloom  ends  of  the  highest  fruit  clusters  which  point 
upward  cannot  be  reached  by  a  spray  from  the  ground  ;  they  must 
be  drenched  from  a  tower  mounted  on  the  spray  wagon. 

The  imperative  necessity  of  filling  the  cluster  cups  at  this  time 
demands  thorough,  conscientious  work.  Too  much  stress  cannot 
be  placed  upon  making  the  spraying  liberal  and  painstaking.  The 
material  used  in  this  spraying  should  be  from  half  to  twice  as 
much  as  in  any  subsequent  treatment.  All  expenditures  of  time 
and  care  and  money  will  yield  rich  returns  in  the  cleanliness  and 
value  of  the  mature  fruit. 

It  is  recommended  that  3  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gal- 
lons of  water  be  used,  to  which  should  be  added  a  milk-of-lime 
solution  made  from  3  pounds  of  slaked  stone  lime.  All  constitu- 
ents —  lead,  lime,  and  water  —  should  be  carefully  strained  into 
the  spray  tank  or  barrel. 


INSECTS  201 

Second  spraying.  The  difference  in  the  time  of  blooming  of 
different  varieties  of  apples,  and  even  of  fruit  clusters  on  individual 
trees,  makes  it  certain  that  when  the  calyx  end  of  a  certain  per- 
centage of  the  fruit  has  advanced  to  the  proper  conditions  for  the 
first  spraying,  the  remainder  —  perhaps  the  greater  part  —  is  yet 
in  bloom.  A  second  spraying,  a  week  or  ten  days  later  than  the 
first,  is  necessary  in  order  to  reach  these  belated  blooms  before 
their  calyxes  close.  It  is  also  desirable  to  apply  to  the  fruit  a  heavy 
coating  of  arsenical  spray  material  as  quickly  as  possible  on  account 
of  the  early  and  great  activities  of  curculio.  The  second  application 
is  more  valuable  if  applied  with  a  view  to  treating  belated  blooms 
than   if  applied  arbitrarily  three  weeks  after  the  first  spraying. 

As  it  is  not  practicable  to  consider  a  schedule  of 
spraying  for  the  codling  moth  independent  of  apple 
diseases,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  where 
diseases  are  preva- 
lent the  arsenate  of 
lead  of  the  second 
spraying — whether 
applied  one  week 
or  three  weeks  after 
the  first  —  be  incor- 
porated into  a  fun- 
gicide. 

Third  spraying.  The  third  spraying  of  lead  should  be  applied,  in 
combination  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  six  weeks  after  the  first.  To 
50  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture  should  be  added  1 1  pounds  of  lead. 

Plum  curculio  (Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  Herbst).  As  a  perennial 
problem  of  apple-growing,  the  plum  curculio  takes  the  second 
place  in  point  of  economic  significance.  In  spite  of  its  name  its 
dietary  range  includes  other  fruits  than  the  plum.  In  addition  to 
apples,  peaches,  and  plums,  it  feeds  upon  and  breeds  in  cherries, 
pears,  and  other  cultivated  fruits.  It  is  recognized  as  the  principal 
insect  enemy  of  the  peach,  and  was  not  successfully  combated  until 
the  introduction  of  arsenate  of  lead  as  a  means  of  control.  In 
peaches,  when  unchecked,  it  finds  a  most  congenial  environment 
for  breeding,  and  there  reproduces  itself  with  amazing  multiplicity. 


FlG.  86.   Work  of  curculio  (1  and  2)  and  apple  weevil  (3) 
(Photograph  by  F.  E.  Brooks) 


202 


THE  APPLE 


Investigations  of  the  character  and  extent  of  this  beetle's  injury 
to  fruits  show  that  it  is  almost,  and  in  some  instances  quite,  as 
inimical  to  apple-growing  as  to  peach-growing.  The  form  of  the 
injury  is  radically  different,  however.  Except  in  extremely  rare 
cases,  curculio  larvae  do  not  mature  in  the  apple.  The  female 
deposits  eggs  freely  in  them,  and  the  majority  of  them  hatch,  but 
unlike  those  hatched  in  peaches  a  very  small  percentage  survive 
the  larval  state.  They  succumb  to  the  forces  exerted  upon  them 
by  the  natural  enlargement  and  cell 
formation  of  the  apple,  and  work  no 
injury  except  that  of  giving  to  the 
fruit  a  distorted  shape  and  surface 
imperfections,  arising  from  the  egg 
and  feeding  punctures.  This  injury, 
however,  is  costly  to  the  apple- 
grower.  As  a  medium  for  the  per- 
petuation of  its  species,  the  apple  is 
fatal  to  the  curculio. 

Description    and    history    of    the 
plum    curculio.     The    beetle    is    a 
member  of  a  family  of  weevils  con- 
spicuous for  the  taxation  they   im- 
pose on  cultivated  and  stored  crops. 
The  adult  curculio  is  a  beetle  about 
a  fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  is 
armed  with  a  proboscis,  or  snout,  a 
third  as  long  as  itself.    The  color  is 
black  or  dark  gray,  marked  with  ochre  yellow  and  white.     The 
back  is  ridged,  bearing  two  well-developed  humps,  besides  several 
minor  prominences. 

Because  of  its  natural  secretiveness  and  its  relative  inactivity 
in  exposed  places  during  daylight  hours,  the  beetle  is  seldom  seen 
on  the  trees  by  even  the  most  careful  observer.  A  peculiarity  of 
the  species  is  that  it  resorts  to  alleged  "  possum  "  tactics  to  escape 
observation,  and  will  simulate  death  by  curling  up  and  dropping 
to  the  ground  when  disturbed.  The  beetles  could  be  easily  caught 
by  jarring  them  from  the  trees  onto  sheets  spread  beneath,  and 
picking  them  up  while  they  are  motionless  and  apparently  dead. 


Fig.  87.    Apple  weevil.    (Photo 
graph  by  F.  E.  Brooks) 


INSECTS  203 

This  treatment  by  jarring  has  been  found  to  be  impracticable, 
however,  and  inordinately  expensive. 

The  egg.  A  large  number  of  the  eggs  never  hatch.  One  reason 
is  improper  fertilization  ;  another  is  the  condition  produced  in  the 
egg  cavity  by  the  drying  out  of  the  tissues  immediately  surround- 
ing the  egg,  and  the  heat  to  which  it  is  subjected  when  exposed 
to  sunlight  in  this  relatively  moistureless  environment.  Under 
such  unfavorable  conditions  the  egg  collapses  and  the  contents 
become  thin  and  watery. 

The  greater  part  of  curculio  injury  is  found  not  in  the  actual 
destruction  of  the  apple,  but  in  the  misshapen  and  blemished  fruit 
caused  by  early-season  egg  punctures.  Most  of  the  eggs  are  de- 
posited within  the  first  six  or  eight  weeks  of  the  apple's  life.  These 
eggs  are  usually  accompanied  by  the  characteristic  crescent  mark 
of  the  female  curculio's  puncture,  and  with  the  growth  of  the  apple 
the  crescent  cuts  produce  an  atrophied  growth  at  the  point  of  inci- 
sion, resulting  in  a  malformation  of  the  apple  at  that  point.  Later 
the  wound  heals  over,  but  the  skin  forming  the  cicatrix  is  thick- 
ened and  russeted.  By  the  time  the  fruit  is  ripe  for  picking,  this 
russeted  skin  has  enlarged  until  it  is  the  size  of  a  dime,  with  an 
irregular  outline.  Very  often  there  are  several  of  these  scars  on 
a  single  apple. 

The  larva.  Four  or  five  days  after  it  is  laid,  the  egg  is  hatched 
into  a  minute,  footless  grub  nearly  white  in  color  and  with  a  dis- 
tinct, brown  head.  At  first  very  small,  it  grows  rapidly  with  feed- 
ing until  ready  to  emerge,  attaining  a  length  of  about  a  third  of 
an  inch.  The  larva  rarely  goes  to  the  core,  as  does  the  codling- 
moth  larva,  but  eats  its  way  into  the  flesh  of  the  apple,  leaving 
a  brown,  grainy  ordure  in  its  wake.  Small  apples  often  are  com- 
pletely emptied  of  their  contents,  save  for  the  castings  of  the 
departed  worm.  In  about  three  weeks  from  hatching,  the  larva 
emerges  and  goes  into  pupation  in  the  earth. 

Larval  mortality.  Very  few  larvae  ever  succeed  in  attaining 
full  growth  in  the  apple.  They  perish  before  half  grown,  leaving 
as  the  only  evidence  of  their  occupancy  a  hairlike  line,  dark  green 
against  the  white  flesh  of  the  fruit.  The  tissues  along  this  line 
harden,  becoming  bitter  to  the  taste  and  impairing  the  flavor  of 
the  apple  to  that  extent. 


204  THE  APPLE 

The  pupa.  On  the  emergence  of  the  larva,  it  digs  its  way  into 
the  earth,  where  it  is  transformed  after  a  few  days  into  the  pupa. 
The  depth  to  which  it  tunnels  the  soil  varies,  but  rarely  exceeds 
three  inches.  A  pupating  cell  is  prepared  by  the  twisting  and  turning 
of  the  worm.  In  this  the  pupa  remains  dormant  and  inactive  until 
it  has  reached  the  final  (or  beetle)  stage,  when,  conditions  being 
favorable,  it  at  once  forces  its  way  to  the  surface.  The  subter- 
ranean life  of  the  curculio  is  extremely  variable  and  is  largely 
governed  by  the  condition  of  the  soil.  A  moist  soil  hastens  the 
emergence  of  the  beetle,  while  a  hard,  baked  condition  greatly 
retards  it.  The  average  subterranean  life  of  the  beetle  in  loose, 
moist  earth  is  about  three  weeks. 

Soon  after  emergence  the  beetle  renews  its  feeding  upon  fruit, 
this  time  by  gouging  out  holes  with  its  long  snout,  thereby  making 
the  circular  punctures  so  commonly  found  in  fruit  in  the  fall.  It 
sustains  life  by  these  depredations  until  the  approach  of  winter, 
when  it  goes  into  hibernation  in  such  protected  places  as  are  most 
readily  found.  In  the  early  days  of  the  following  spring  the  beetles 
reappear,  mate,  and  soon  begin  egg-laying  in  the  fruit  left  exposed 
by  the  falling  of  the  blossoms. 

Treatment.  By  means  of  thorough  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead 
just  after  the  blooms  are  off,  the  apples  may  be  rendered  relatively 
immune  from  the  curculio  egg-laying  and  feeding.  The  first  appli- 
cation of  arsenate  of  lead  for  the  codling  moth  is  rightly  timed  to 
give  a  protective  coating  of  poison  against  the  earlier  activities  of 
the  curculio.  Apples  at  that  time  have  a  pubescent  growth  which 
is  retentive  of  liquid  spray.  A  second  spraying  a  week  or  ten  days 
later  (as  recommended  for  the  codling  moth)  is  of  more  value 
against  curculio  than  if  applied  several  weeks  later.  The  spray 
material  adheres  much  better  to  the  surfaces  of  apples  and  foliage 
after  one  or  two  applications.  The  solids  deposited  hold  subse- 
quent sprayings,  and  aid  in  securing  a  thicker  and  more  uniformly 
distributed  investment  of  poison.  For  this  reason  two  sprayings 
should  be  administered  in  quick  succession. 

The  habit  of  the  plum  curculio  in  pupating  at  a  shallow  depth 
in  the  soil  renders  it  peculiarly  liable  to  destruction  by  the  clean 
cultivation  of  the  orchard.  Light  surface  harrowing  either  destroys 
the  beetles  or  so  exposes  them  that  they  ultimately  perish. 


INSECTS 


205 


Fig.  88.    Apple  maggot,  male  (adult  stage) 
(Department  of  Entomology,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity) 


Green-fruit  worm  (Xylina).     Early  in  the  season  when  apples 

are  quite  small,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  fruits  that  have  been 

eaten  on  one  side.  Some- 
times the  injury  appears 
as  a  round  or  irregular 
cavity,  and  again  half  the 
fruit  is  eaten.  Apples 
growing  near  together,  as 
in  clusters,  may  all  show 
injuries  of  the  same  char- 
acter. The  cavities  are 
clean  and  not  spun  over 
with  web,  indicating  that 
the  work  is  done  by  large 
rather  than  small  worms. 
The  worms  responsible 
for  these  injuries  are  usu- 
ally more  than   one  inch 

long  when  full  grown,  and  are  of  light-green  color,  marked  by 

longitudinal  stripes  and  more  or  less  distinct  cream-colored  spots. 

These  insects  have  been 

found     in     orchards     for 

many  years.    As  far  back 

as  1870  they  were  re- 
ported as  destructive,  not 

only  to  apples  but  to  pears 

and  peaches.    They  have 

a  wide  distribution,  being 

found  in   Canada  and   in 

most  of  the  states  east  of 

the  Rocky  Mountains.    In 

1877     they    did     serious 

damage    to    fruit    in   the 

orchards  about  Lockport, 

New  York,  and   in    1896 

they  were  again  numerous 

enough  to  attract  general  attention,  specimens  being  received  from 

twelve  counties. 


Fig.  89.   Apple  maggot,  female  (adult  stage) 
(Department   of  Entomology,   Cornell    Uni- 
versity) 


2C>6 


THE  APPLE 


The  green-fruit  worm  belongs  to  the  genus  Xylina.  Slingerland  1 
describes  three  species  —  Xylina  automata,  Xylina  laticenerea, 
and  Xylina  grotei.  Dr.  Riley  2  regarded  the  last  two  as  varietal  forms 
of  the  first.  The  specific  differences  are  slight,  and  as  the  feeding 
habits  are  the  same  they  may  be  considered  as  one  species.  Their 
history  is  about  as  follows  :  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  spring  by 
moths  that  have  wintered  in  the  adult  stage  or  have  just  emerged 
from  the  pupa  state.  The  early  feeding  habits  of  the  larvae  seem 
not  to  have  been  observed,  but  probably  buds  and  leaves  form  their 

food.  When  discov- 
ered eating  the  fruits, 
the)'  are  about  half 
grown.  During  the 
early  part  of  June 
they  complete  their 
feeding,  drop  to  the 
ground,  burrow  down 
2  or  3  inches,  and 
are  transformed  to 
pupae  in  earthen  cells. 
About  the  middle  of 
September  the  moths 
begin  to  come  out ; 
some,  however  (pos- 
sibly those  that  pu- 
pated late)  remain 
as  pupae  all  winter, 
the  moths  emerging  in  the  spring.    There  is  but  one  brood. 

Since  these  worms  are  voracious  feeders,  it  would  seem  that  the 
arsenical  sprays  applied  for  codling  moth  would  control  them,  but 
apparently  they  do  not.  Possibly  applications  of  arsenical  poisons 
made  just  as  the  buds  begin  to  open,  followed  by  further  applica- 
tions as  the  leaves  unfold,  would  be  effective.  The  presence  of  the 
worms  is  usually  not  discovered  until  the  fruit  is  attacked,  and 
then  it  is  too  late  for  preventive  measures.  By  the  next  season  the 
injury  is  forgotten,  or  is  not  remembered  as  serious  enough  to 

1  M.  V.  Slingerland,  entomologist,  Cornell  University. 

2  W.  A.  Riley,  entomologist,  Cornell  University. 


Fig.  90.    Larvae  of  the  apple  maggot  (enlarged) 
(Department  of  Entomology,  Cornell  University) 


INSECTS  207 

warrant  measures  to  prevent  its  recurrence.  The  worms  have  some 
parasites  that  help  to  reduce  their  numbers.  They  also  have  the 
habit  of  dropping  to  the  ground  when  subjected  to  a  sudden  jar, 
just  as  does  the  plum  curculio  ;  thence,  if  the  worms  become 
numerous,  jarring  upon  sheets  could  be  profitably  practiced  except 
for  very  large  trees. 

Apple  maggot  (Rhagoletis  pomonella).  This  insect  has  come 
under  my  notice  only  in  apples  from  the  Eastern  states.  In  1867 
B.  D.  Walsh  1  described  the  insect  from  flies  bred  from  Eastern 


Fig.  91.    The  work  of  the  apple  maggot 

Early  harvest  apples  badly  affected  with  maggots.    (Department  of  Entomology, 
Cornell  University) 

apples  and  from  native  haws,  and  since  that  time  it  has  been 
frequently  reported  as  a  serious  pest  in  New  York  and  in  most  of 
the  New  England  States.  In  1884  it  was  reported  to  be  doing 
great  damage  in  Michigan. 

For  some  reason  not  readily  explained  the  insect  has  failed  to 
become  generally  disseminated  in  the  Middle  Western  states.  Most 
reports  of  serious  injury  come  from  New  York  and  other  more 
eastern  states.  These  reports  agree  (1)  that  the  insect  spreads 
slowly  and  may  infest  a  few  trees  in  an  orchard  for  several  years 
without  spreading  to  neighboring  trees  ;  (2)  that  summer  and  fall 
apples  suffer  much  more  than  do  winter  varieties  ;  (3)  that  there 

1  i;.  I).  Walsh.  Illinois  state  horticulturist. 


208  THE  APPLE 

are  marked  differences  in  infestation  in  different  seasons ;  and 
(4)  that  it  is  difficult  to  control. 

The  maggot  that  does  the  injury  is  the  larvae  of  a  two-winged  fly, 
a  little  smaller  than  the  house  fly.  At  the  North  the  flies  appear 
early  in  July  ;  in  more  southern  regions  somewhat  earlier.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  singly  beneath  the  skin  of  the  apple.  An  indi- 
vidual female  is  capable  of  producing  from  300  to  400  eggs,  the 
period  of  egg-laying  continuing  throughout  its  life.  The  larvae  bore 
irregular  channels  through  the  fruit,  feeding  as  they  go.  The  feed- 
ing period  continues  until  the  fruit  drops  and  becomes  mellow. 
Then  the  larvae  bore  out,  go  below  the  ground  surface  to  pupate, 
and  there  remain  as  pupae  until  time  for  the  flies  to  emerge  in 
early  summer.    There  is  thus  but  one  brood  a  year. 

As  the  eggs  are  deposited  under  the  skin  of  the  fruit  and  the 
larvae  feed  entirely  within,  applications  of  poison  are  ineffective. 
There  are  two  remedial  measures  that  are  successful  in  proportion 
to  the  thoroughness  with  which  they  are  performed  ;  namely,  de- 
struction of  the  fallen  fruit  and  frequent  tillage  of  the  surface  soil. 
The  first  aims  at  the  destruction  of  the  larvae,  the  second  is  more 
or  less  destructive  to  the  pupae. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

DISEASES 

It  is  difficult  for  the  amateur  to  realize  the  many  ills  to  which 
apple  trees  are  subject,  but  as  the  apple  industry  becomes  older  and 
more  specialized,  the  more  apparent  is  the  necessity  of  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  diseases  of  this  fruit. 

Careful  observation  of  all  the  characters  of  any  disease,  with  a 
full  description  of  them  on  the  part  of  the  investigator,  will  aid 
in  determining  just  what  particular  trouble  besets  any  tree.  This 
is  especially  true  when  the  orchardist  has  a  good,  reliable  guide 
to  compare  with  the  written  description  of  the  disease.  Often  a 
treatise  may  be  most  helpful  if  it  is  arranged  in  some  logical  order, 
especially  with  reference  to  the  parts  of  the  tree  affected. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  set  forth  in  a  practical 
manner  the  diseases  of  the  apple  tree  with  special  reference  to 
the  parts  affected. 

Diseases  affecting  the  Woody  Parts  of  the  Tree 
below  Ground 

Root  gall  (Pseudomonas  tumefaciens).  Many  times  when  young 
apple  trees  are  removed  from  the  nursery  rows  a  bacterial  growth 
in  the  form  of  a  brown  swelling  or  knot  may  be  noticed  on  one 
or  more  of  the  roots.  Generally  these  knots  are  located  near  the 
collar  or  crown  of  the  roots,  and  therefore  near  the  surface  of 
the  soil ;  but  sometimes  they  are  found  to  a  considerable  depth 
beneath  the  soil,  and  occasionally  aboveground  on  the  trunk. 

When  these  knots,  or  galls,  first  develop,  they  may  be  whitish 
in  appearance ;  or,  if  aboveground,  greenish,  owing  to  chlorophyll 
formation.  This  color,  however,  is  soon  lost  and  the  knot  be- 
comes brown  and  warty.  In  the  north  these  galls  generally  decay 
at  the  end  of  the  season,  but  in  the  south  and  southwest  they 
sometimes  may  continue  to  grow  for  a  much  longer  period. 

209 


2IO  THE  APPLE 

Unscrupulous  nurserymen  may  cut  away  these  galls  if  they 
appear  on  the  roots,  and  sell  the  trees.  But  since  the  cutting 
away  of  the  affected  roots  does  not  always  eradicate  the  disease, 
the  best  practice  is  to  discard  all  affected  trees. 

Root  rot  {Clitocybe  parasitica).  Where  stumps  and  roots  of 
trees  have  been  left  in  the  soil  previous  to  the  planting  of  apple 
trees,  it  has  been  noticed  that  the  roots  of  the  latter  have  been 
attacked  by  a  mushroomlike  growth.  The  mycelium,  or  root  sys- 
tem, of  this  mushroom  penetrates  the  root  system  of  the  apple 
tree  and  causes  the  death  of  both  roots  and  tree.  This  disease 
often  occurs,  however,  without  the  presence  of  old  stumps  and 
roots.  It  has  been  particularly  troublesome  in  Oklahoma,  Missouri, 
and  other  Middle  Western  and  Southern  states. 

The  means  of  controlling  this  disease  seem  to  be  simple.  Dig- 
ging up  and  burning  the  trees  is  the  most  practical,  although 
trenching  the  affected  trees  is  sometimes  practiced. 

Diseases  affecting  the  Woody  Parts  of  the  Tree 
Aboveground 

Pear  blight  (Bacillus  amylovorus).  This  is  a  serious  disease  of 
the  apple,  as  well  as  of  the  pear.  All  varieties  of  the  apple  seem 
less  resistant  to  this  disease  than  the  pears,  nearly  all  being 
affected   somewhat. 

This  disease  is  more  commonly  noticed  just  after  pollination. 
Generally,  during  the  four  weeks  after  the  fruit  has  "set,"  the 
tips  of  the  branches,  and  often  the  blossoms,  become  wilted,  turn 
black,  and  subsequently  die.  The  bacillus  as  a  rule  does  not  pene- 
trate far  into  the  older  wood  of  the  apple  tree ;  it  injures  chiefly 
the  tips  of  the  branches,  producing  the  so-called  "tip  blight." 

When  first  attacked,  the  soft  bark  appears  water-soaked,  then 
slowly  changes  in  color  until  it  is  shriveled  and  black.  Sometimes 
there  is  apparent  a  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  the  diseased 
part  of  the  twig  and  the  healthy  part,  denoting  that  the  organism 
has  ceased  to  spread.  Often  the  affected  bark  tissue  is  ruptured 
and  a  gelatinous  substance,  the  result  of  the  work  of  the  bacillus, 
is  exuded.  This  gelatinous  matter  is  not  always  of  the  same  color, 
but  varies  from  milky  white  to  black. 


DISEASES 


211 


Countless  numbers  of  bacilli  are  contained  in  the  beads  of  the 
gelatinous  substance,  and  are  readily  spread  to  the  blossoms  and 
branches  by  bees  and  other  insects.  They  multiply  rapidly  in  the 
nectar  of  flowers,  from  which  they  spread  into  the  softer  tissues  of 
the  young  twigs.  Injuries  to  the  young  growth  and  biting  insects 
may  assist  the  organism  in  gaining  entrance  to  the  growing  tissue. 

Brief  exposure  to  direct 
sunlight  or  a  period  of  dry 
weather  often  results  in  de- 
stroying the  bacillus. 

Where  conditions  are  favor- 
able the  disease  may  winter 
over ;  but  since  considerable 
moisture  and  protection  from 
drying  out  are  necessary  for 
successful  wintering,  and  since 
relatively  few  twigs  offer  these 
winter  conditions,  it  is  evident 
that  the  disease  does  not  ex- 
tensively winter  over. 

The  control  methods  con- 
sist in  thoroughly  pruning  all 
diseased  tissue  and  cutting 
each  twig  an  inch  or  more  be- 
low the  visibly  affected  part. 
It  is  possible  practically  to 
control  this  disease  if  the 
pruning  is  carried  on  with 
great  care  and  thoroughness. 

Bitter  rot  (Glomorella  rufomaculans).  This  disease  appears  as 
cankers  or  sunken  areas  on  the  bark  and  may  be  found  on  the 
limbs  of  the  trees,  where  it  generally  passes  the  winter.  Beneath 
the  bark  the  wood  growth  dies  and  cracks  open.  It  seems  highly 
probable  that  there  is  a  relation  between  the  canker  on  the  limbs 
and  the  summer  form  of  the  disease  on  the  fruit.  Duggar1  likens 
the  relation  to  a  pyramidal  area  at  the  apex  of  which  is  found 
the  cankered  limb  and  below  it  the  ever-increasing  area  of  the 

1  B.  M.  Duggar,  Professor  of  Plant  Physiology  in  Cornell  University. 


Fig.  92.    Bitter  rot 

Stem  of  young  tree  one  month  after  inoculat- 
ing with  fungus.    (University  of  Maine) 


THE  APPLE 


summer  rot  of  the  fruit.  Infections  of  the  tree  doubtless  have  their 
origin  in  the  spores  given  off  by  the  fruit,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  equally  reasonable  to  assume  that  the  canker  is  the  means  of 
infecting  subsequent  crops. 

Control  measures  are  to  prune  out  all  limbs  showing  canker, 
and  spray  the  tree  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  lime-sulphur  from 

two  to  four  times  during 
the  season. 

Black  rot  and  canker 
(Sphceropsis  malorum).  Of 
late  much  damage  has 
been  done  by  this  canker. 
It  was  first  studied  in 
New  York  State,  and  has 
since  been  known  as  "  the 
New  York  apple  canker." 
However,  it  has  been 
found  in  other  sections  of 
the  country,  notably  in  the 
northeastern  and  north- 
central  states,  as  well  as  in 
Canada,  and  probably  in 
all  apple-growing  regions. 
Its  presence  is  indicated 
by  a  swollen  appearance 
of  the  limb  and  a  very 
rough  and  depressed  bark, 
with  sometimes  an  expo- 
sure of  the  wood  in  the 
center  of  the  affected  part. 
Often  the  affected  area 
extends  several  feet  along  the  bark,  while  in  its  mild  form  the 
canker  may  be  merely  a  spot.  Small  twigs  and  the  trunks  are 
sometimes  affected,  but  the  disease  most  often  occurs  on  the  larger 
limbs  of  the  older  trees.  Young  trees  are  occasionally  infected, 
the  result  often  being  a  complete  girdling  of  the  tree,  and  death. 
From  the  available  data  it  is  evident  that  the  most  serious 
damage  by  this  rot  is  only  on  limbs  which  have  received  wounds 


Fig.  93.  Stages  in  the  formation  of  Sphasropsis 
limb  cankers.    (University  of  Maine) 


DISEASES 


213 


through  which  the  fungus  can  gain  entrance.  Sun  scald  injures 
the  trees  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  an  entrance  to  this  fungus. 
Varieties  most  susceptible  to  this  canker  are  the  Spitzenburg, 
Twenty  Ounce,  Baldwin,  Wagener,  Greening,  and  King.  Some 
reports  speak  of  the  Tolman  Sweet  as  practically  resistant. 

Pruning,  scraping,  and 
spraying  are  the  remedies 
mentioned  for  the  control 
of  this  fungus.  Good, 
thrifty  trees,  well  taken 
care  of,  are  a  good  insur- 
ance against  its  attacks. 

European  apple  canker 
(Nectria  ditissima).  The 
European  apple  canker  is 
a  common  fungus  through- 
out Europe  and  to  a  large 
extent  in  the  eastern  and 
northeastern  states.  It 
resembles  somewhat  the 
other  cankers,  but  is  a 
perennial  and  therefore 
extends  its  growth  each 
season,  while  most  of  the 
others  are  probably  an- 
nuals. Besides  this,  the 
injured  bark  often  peels 
off.  The  fungus  first  gains 
entrance  through  wounds 
caused  by  hailstones,  poor 
pruning,   carelessness    in 

cultivating,  etc.  The  remedy,  then,  would  be  to  prevent  these  in- 
juries, or  to  protect  the  wound  by  applications  of  good  paint  or 
spray  mixture,  such  as  Bordeaux  or  lime-sulphur. 

Blister  canker  (Nummularia  discreta).  Although  this  fungus 
has  not  been  a  serious  pest  in  any  particular  place,  still  it  has  such 
a  wide  distribution  throughout  the  United  States  and  Europe  that 
it  seems  worthy  of  some  consideration.     It  has  sometimes  been 


Fig.  94.    Limb  canker  on  young  twigs 
(University  of  Maine) 


2I4 


THE  APPLE 


called  the  Illinois  canker  because  of  its  destructive  work  in  that 
state.  Being  perennial  in  habit,  it  will  in  time  result  in  the  girdling 
and  death  of  the  limb  or  tree. 

In  appearance  the  blister  canker  differs  greatly  from  the  other 
cankers  described.  The  area  infested  by  it  is  only  slightly  sunken, 
brownish  in  color,   turning  black  as  if  charred,   with  a  mottled 

arrangement  of  healthy 
bark  and  diseased  tissue. 
Later  on  the  seemingly 
healthy  bark  dies,  and  the 
whole  infested  area  has 
a  highly  uneven  surface, 
often  cracking  and  becom- 
ing very  dry.  There  is  a 
sharp  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  infested  area 
and  the  healthy  bark  sur- 
rounding it. 

Pruning  out  the  dis- 
eased areas  will  aid  in  con- 
trolling this  fungus,  and 
since  it  gains  entrance  to 
the  tree  through  wounds, 
these  must  be  treated  as 
recommended  in  the  case 
of  the  other  cankers. 

Decay  or  rot  {Polyporus 
sulphureus).  This  fungus 
establishes  itself  in  the  de- 
caying wood  of  the  tree, 
especially  about  knot  holes, 
from  there  gaining  entrance  to  the  heartwood  and  killing  the 
fibers  as  it  progresses.  The  affected  wood  at  first  turns  brown, 
then  decays  rapidly.  In  the  autumn  yellowish  or  sulphur-colored 
shelving  clusters  of  the  fungus  are  developed  on  trunks  and 
limbs  of  trees. 

Control  measures  are  to  protect  all  wounds  with  paint  or  some 
other  material,  in  order  to  leave  no  openings  for  this  pest.    Scars 


Fig.  95.    Limb  canker  on  older  limbs 
(University  of  Maine) 


DISEASES  215 

of  broken  limbs,  pruning  scars,  and  bruises  of  all  kinds  on  roots 
or  wood  should  be  covered  promptly  and  thoroughly. 

Scab  (Venturia  pomi).  Scab  is  sometimes  found  on  the  twigs  of 
trees,  especially  where  it  is  prevalent  on  fruit  and  leaves.  It  will 
be  discussed  in  connection  with  diseases  affecting  the  leaves. 


Diseases  affecting  the  Leaves 

Pear  blight.  The  leaves  of  the  apple  are  affected  by  this 
fungus  in  the  same  manner  as  the  twigs  ;  in  fact,  the  whole  tip 
of  the  limb  —  leaves,  twigs,  blossoms,  and  fruit  —  has  the  appear- 
ance of  being  scorched  by  fire.  The  means  of  detecting  this 
fungus  and  its  remedy  are  the  same  as  given  for  the  woody  parts 
of  the  tree  aboveground  (see  p.  210). 

Mildew  {Podosph&ra  Leucotricha).  A  mildew  covering  both 
surfaces  of  the  leaves  is  often  found  on  nursery  stock  and  some- 
times on  older  apple  trees.  The  tender  twigs  are  also  sometimes 
affected.  The  fungus  can  be  quite  easily  controlled  by  spraying 
with  any  fungicide,  such  as  Bordeaux,  lime-sulphur,  or  potassium 
sulphide. 

Cedar  rust  {Gymnosporangium  juniperi-virginiana,  Schw.).  *As 
the  name  implies,  cedar  rust  has  for  its  native  host  plant  the  cedar, 
upon  which  one  stage  of  its  life  cycle  is  spent.  Infections  of  apple 
fruit  and  foliage  are  made  directly  from  cedars  and  not  from  other 
sources.  It  follows,  then,  that  orchards  in  sections  free  from  these 
trees  are  not  subject  to  cedar  rust.  There  is  wide  variation  in  the 
effects  of  this  disease  on  apple  trees.  Some  varieties  are  practi- 
cally immune  from  it,  while  others  are  ruinously  susceptible  to  it. 

Both  the  foliage  and  the  fruit  of  the  apple  are  attacked.  The 
rust  appears  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  as  light-yellow  spots, 
and  on  the  fruit  as  brighter  yellow  spots  which  frequently  have  a 
greenish  cast.  As  these  spots  enlarge,  finally  reaching  a  diameter  of 
from  1  to  \  inch,  they  change  gradually  to  an  orange-yellow  color, 
and  numbers  of  minute  black  dots  become  visible  in  the  center. 
After  a  few  weeks  there  develops  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  leaf 
a  thickened  cushion,  which  forms  spore-bearing  tubes,  the  ends  of 
which  split  and  curl  backward,  producing  a  fringed  effect.  Spores 
are  produced  in  great  quantities,  and  are  carried  far  and  wide  by 


216  THE  APPLE 

winds,  but  have  not  the  power  to  reinfect  apples.  Finding  the 
original  host  plant,  the  cedar,  the  spores  lodge  there  and  start  a  new 
growth,  producing  ultimately  cedar  balls  or  cedar  apples  —  round, 
reddish,  gall-like  swellings,  usually  less  than  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  galls  begin  their  growth  on  cedar  twigs  during  the  early 
summer  months,  pass  the  winter  there,  and  renew  growth  the 


Fig.  96.    Powdery  mildew  on  leaves.    (University  of  Maine) 

following  spring.  Full  growth  is  reached  the  second  fall  after  the 
start  of  the  infection.  The  second  spring,  in  wet  weather,  yellow 
jelly-like  growths  protrude  all  over  the  balls.  From  this  gelatinous 
mass  is  produced  a  second  and  smaller  crop  of  spores,  which, 
when  dry,  are  like  dust  and  may  be  carried  by  winds  to  apple 
trees,  where  they  infect  the  foliage  and  the  fruit,  causing  the 
abnormalities  described  above. 


DISEASES  217 

Cedar  rust  on  the  fruit  appears  as  bright-yellow  spots.  It  occurs 
in  the  majority  of  cases  in  and  around  the  blossom-end  depression. 
Spores  are  produced  from  the  diseased  areas  in  projections  like 
those  occurring  on  the  leaf.  The  fungus  penetrates  into  the  flesh 
of  the  apple,  producing  a  yellowish,  atrophied  condition  of  the  cells. 

It  is  well  known  that  certain  varieties  of  apples  are  more  resist- 
ant to  the  disease  than  others.  In  some  varieties  it  is  the  foliage 
that  is  most  affected,  while  in  others  it  is  the  fruit.  The  foliage 
of  the  Ben  Davis  and  the  Shockley  is  extremely  susceptible  to  this 
rust,  while  the  fruit  of  the  latter  suffers  almost  as  much  as  the  foli- 
age. The  principal  injury  wrought  by  the  disease  is  to  the  foliage, 
for  this  naturally  reacts  on  the  whole  tree.  The  diseased  leaves  fall ; 
in  some  instances  nearly  complete  defoliation  takes  place,  with 
the  result  that  the  feeding  functions  of  the  whole  organism  are 
impaired,  to  the  detriment  of  the  crop  on  the  trees  and  of  the  fruit 
buds  of  the  succeeding  crop. 

Treatment.  The  surest  method  of  preventing  the  establishment 
of  cedar-rust  infections  in  orchards  is  to  remove  all  cedar  trees  and 
shrubs  within  a  radius  of  at  least  a  mile.  The  source  of  infection  is 
always  the  cedar,  since  the  fungus  cannot  exist  without  reproducing 
itself  in  this  tree  at  one  time  in  its  history. 

W.  W.  Chase  1  says  that  he  has  had  only  indifferent  success  in 
spraying  against  the  disease.  The  sprayings  were  beneficial,  but 
far  from  satisfactory.  A  fourteen-year-old  Shockley  orchard  was 
used  in  the  experiments,  portions  being  sprayed  with  atomic  sul- 
phur and  others  with  prepared  lime-sulphur.  The  disease  gets  its 
start  in  early  spring,  at  a  time  when  wet  weather  favors  the  pro- 
duction of  the  spores  on  the  cedar  balls  and  their  germination  on 
apple  trees.  To  be  most  beneficial  the  treatment  should  begin 
with  the  appearance  of  the  foliage  and  continue  at  intervals  of 
from  ten  days  to  two  weeks,  until  the  leaves  and  fruit  are  well 
covered  by  a  protective  fungicide. 

Apple  scab  (Venturia  pomi  [Fr.]  Wint.).  With  the  single  excep- 
tion of  abnormally  virulent  outbreaks  of  bitter  rot,  no  disease  of 
the  apple  is  of  more  economic  significance  than  apple  scab.  In 
orchards  where  no  measures  are  taken  to  prevent  or  control  it,  the 
scab-diseased  fruit  may  easily  outnumber  the  scab-free  fruit  two  to 

1  Assistant  state  entomologist,  Georgia. 


218 


THE  APPLE 


one.  Sometimes  the  proportion  is  even  greater.  The  badly  diseased 
apples  are  small,  unshapely,  and  often  cracked  and  worthless.  Light 
attacks  of  this  scab,  while  not  always  stunting  or  splitting  the  fruit, 
lower  its  market  value. 

Apple  scab  is  caused  by  a  fungus  which  lives  in  summer  on  the 
leaves  and  fruit  and,  to  some  extent,  on  the  twigs,  and  in  winter 
on  fallen  leaves.  The  character  and  extent  of  its  work  are  well 
known  to  all  apple-growers.  Scab  appears  on  the  fruit  as  roughly 
circular,  dark-gray  or  olive-brown  spots.  The  size  of  individual 
spots  varies  from  tiny  specks  to  blotches  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 


Fig.  97.    Scab 

Malformation  and  cracking  resulting  from  a  bad  attack  of  scab.   The  surface  of  the  fruit  is 
nearly  covered  with  scab  spots.    (University  of  Maine) 

Frequently  two  or  more  scab  spots  join,  and  together  extend  their 
development  so  that  almost  the  entire  epidermis  of  the  apple  is 
scabbed.  In  such  attacks  the  apple  usually  cracks  deeply,  and  even 
if  it  does  not  drop  prematurely,  it  has  no  market  value. 

The  fungus  also  attacks  the  leaves,  causing  the  same  olive-brown 
discoloration  common  to  its  early  stages  on  the  apple.  Most  of  the 
infections  of  the  leaf  are  confined  to  the  downy  underside,  the 
fungus  rooting  and  growing  there  more  readily  than  on  the  glaze- 
like upper  surface. 

The  development  of  apple  scab  is  coincident  with  the  appearance 
of  the  foliage  and  fruit  in  early  spring.  The  fruit  buds  are  often 
destroyed  in  large  numbers  at  this  season,  and  when  the  leaves  are 


DISEASES 


219 


severely  attacked,  the  trees  are  almost  denuded  of  foliage  by  May. 
Cool,  wet  weather  is  favorable  to  the  development  and  spread  of 
scab  infections,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  most  active  in  early  spring 
and  the  rainy  periods  of  summer. 

Treatment.    Destructive  as  the  disease  may  be,  it  yields  readily 
to  control  measures.    Preventive  measures  are  the  surest,  but  they 


Fig.  9S.    Scab  developed  in  storage.    (University  of  Maine) 

must  be  applied  at  precisely  the  right  time  to  be  of  maximum 
value.  It  is  next  to  impossible  to  check  the  defoliation  of  the  tree 
and  the  scabbing  of  the  fruit  when  it  has  gained  a  good  start  and 
the  weather  conditions  are  propitious  for  its  continuance.  Safety 
lies  in  being  forearmed  against  the  enemy. 

The  commercial  lime-sulphur,  diluted  in  the  proportion  of  2  gal- 
lons to  50  gallons  of  water,  gives  best  results.    Atomic  sulphur 


220  THE  APPLE 

fails  satisfactorily  to  qualify  as  a  control,  and  has  manifested  de- 
cided defoliating  tendencies,  causing  the  leaves  to  assume  a  light 
yellowish  appearance  and  finally  to  drop.  The  action  of  atomic 
sulphur  is  apparently  toxic,  so  that  the  leaf  is  gradually  discolored, 
its  functions  are  impaired  and  finally  cease,  and  the  leaf  falls. 
This  defoliation  stops  after  a  time,  but  is  renewed  with  each  spray- 
ing. However,  Mr.  Chase  r  says  that  he  has  not  observed  it  com- 
pletely to  denude  a  tree,  the  defoliation  never  going  beyond  a  very 
appreciable  thinning  out.  The  whole  process,  as  to  coloring  and 
dropping,  is  similar  to  that  which  accompanies  the  natural  shed- 
ding of  the  leaves  at  the  approach  of  winter. 

The  first  spraying  with  2  gallons  of  prepared  lime-sulphur  to 
50  gallons  of  water  just  before  the  cluster  buds  open  should  be 
followed  in  two  or  three  weeks  by  a  second  spraying  with  the  same 
material,  in  the  proportion  of  i|  to  50,  and  by  a  third  of  the 
same  strength  three  weeks  later.  This  schedule  reduced  the  scab 
to  an  insignificant  consideration. 

Apple-leaf  spot  (Sph&ropsis  malorum,  Peck).  One  of  the  most 
destructive  diseases  of  apple  foliage  is  known  as  leaf  spot  or  frog 
eye.  It  is  more  or  less  prevalent  every  year,  and  in  favorable  sea- 
sons the  defoliation  produced  by  it  is  very  serious.  Like  most 
fungous  diseases,  it  flourishes  best  where  there  is  an  abundance  of 
moisture.  On  apple  trees  located  on  low,  poorly  drained  land, 
where  there  was  little  air  drainage  and  the  moisture  on  the  leaves 
and  in  the  soil  remained  longest,  Mr.  Chase  repeatedly  found  that 
the  young  leaves  were  heavily  smitten  by  the  disease.  With  the 
coming  of  dry  weather  the  defoliation  ceased  and  the  trees  leafed 
out  anew.  The  loss  of  foliage  in  these  instances  had  a  markedly 
depressive  effect  on  the  growth  of  the  fruit. 

'  Leaf  spot  is  another  of  the  apple  diseases  appearing  soon  after 
the  leaves  are  out  in  spring.  Its  period  of  greatest  activity  is  con- 
fined to  spring  and  early  summer.  The  first  indication  of  it  on  the 
leaf  is  a  small,  grayish,  circular  spot.  When  the  diameter  of  this 
spot  has  reached  about  \  inch  a  well-defined,  dark-brown  raised 
margin  is  developed.  Numbers  of  spots  appear  on  tfypt-Jeaf  simul- 
taneously. A  single  mature  spot  has  a  diameter  varying'from  ^  to 
I  inch,  or  more.    At  the  center  of  each  diseased  area  there  is 

1  See  p.  217. 


DISEASES  221 

a  grayish-white  spot  about  |  inch  in  diameter.  Several  raised, 
concentric  grayish  or  brown  rings  may  form  at  irregular  intervals  in 
the  muddy-brown  diseased  tissue  beyond  the  frog-eye  center.  The 
circular  growth  of  the  center  spot  is  often  modified  in  the  extended 
growth,  becoming  lopsided.  None  of  the  above  characteristic  mark- 
ings, with  the  exception  of  the  frog-eye  nucleus,  is  clearly  defined 
on  the  undersurface.  The  coloring  of  the  latter  is  a  uniform  dark- 
brown,  punctuated  by  the  round  and  lighter-colored  frog-eye  spots. 

Leaf  spot  is  caused  by  a  fungus  which  lives  over  winter  on  fallen 
leaves  and  in  cankers  on  the  limbs  and  trunks  of  trees.  In  the 
spring  are  produced  spores,  which  germinate  when  they  fall  on  the 
young  apple  leaves,  if  moisture  is  present,  then  penetrate  and  grow 
in  the  leaf  tissue,  causing  the  spotted  appearance  described  above. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  prescribed  for  apple  scab  will  be 
found  effective  against  leaf  spot.  To  insure  best  results,  apply  the 
first  spraying  of  lime-sulphur  just  before  the  cluster  buds  open ; 
do  not  wait  until  the  full  leaf  crop  unfolds.  Fertilization  and  clean 
cultivation  render  trees  more  resistant  to  the  disease.  Trees  grow- 
ing on  well-limed  soils  have  been  observed  by  Mr.  Chase  to  be  less 
seriously  attacked  than  trees  on  soil  deficient  in  lime. 

Diseases  affecting  the  Blossoms 

Blight.  The  blossoms  are  affected  by  a  fungus  which  is  locally 
called  blossom  blight.  This  is,  so  far  as  known,  the  same  fungus 
that  is  named  pear  blight,  a  description  of  which  is  given  on  page 
210.  The  effect  of  this  fungus  on  the  blossoms  is  to  blast  them 
so  that  their  normal  functions  cannot  take  place.  Careful  cutting 
away  of  diseased  portions  and  conscientious  spraying  will  tend  to 
wipe  out  this  blight. 

Scab.  Sometimes  scab  affects  the  blossoms  of  the  apple  and 
destroys  great  numbers  of  them.  Careful  attention  to  spraying  will 
tend  to  subdue  the  scab  fungus  in  time. 

Diseases  affecting  the  Fruit  ox  the  Tree 

Black  rot  (Spharopsis  malorum).  This  disease,  commonly  known 
as  the  New  York  apple  canker,  attacks  the  fruit  as  well  as  the  bark. 
It  mav  attack  the  fruit  while  growing  on  the  tree,  but  is  more 


THE  APPLE 


common  on  the  neglected,  fallen  fruit,  which  is  a  source  of  infec- 
tion to  the  tree.  It  may  first  appear  as  a  very  small  spot,  generally 
near  the  bud  end  or  calyx  of  the  fruit,  then  spreading  rapidly  over 
the  entire  fruit.  It  may  be  brown  in  color  at  first,  but  it  later 
changes  to  black,  hence  its  name.  It  differs  from  bitter  rot  in  not 
having  the  characteristic  fungous  tissue.  It  may  be  readily  inter- 
changed between  bark  and  fruit,  and  therefore  is  a  very  dangerous 
disease.  The  remedies  given  are  thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux 

mixture  and  atten- 
tion to  the  bark,  as 
described  in  a  pre- 
vious part  of  this 
chapter  (p.  212). 

Blotch  {Phyllos- 
ticta  solitaria).  The 
first  evidence  of  the 
disease  on  the  fruit 
is  a  very  small,  incon- 
spicuous, light-brown 
blotch,  which,  under 
a  hand  lens,  has 
the  appearance  of  a 
stellate  collection  of 
brown  fibers  just  be- 
neath the  epidermis. 
The  blotch,  spread- 


Fig.  99.    Black  rot.    (University  of  Maine) 


ing  radially,  increases 
in  size  until  it  attains 
a  diameter  of  from  1  to  |  and  sometimes  1  inch,  and  becomes 
darker  in  color.  The  advancing  margin  is  irregular  and  jagged 
and  has  a  fringed  appearance.  On  very  young  apples  the  points 
of  infection  occasionally  show  as  small  water-soaked  areas,  and  in 
wet  weather  there  may  be  a  yellowish,  gummy  exudation  from  the 
spots.  Where  the  spots  are  numerous,  they  often  coalesce  and  form 
large  blotches,  which  may  cover  half  or  more  of  the  apple.  The 
fungus  kills  only  the  superficial  cells  (the  epidermis  and  outer 
parenchyma),  so  that  the  continued  growth  of  the  uninvaded  tissues 
beneath  results  in  a  cracking:  of  the  diseased  areas.    The  cracks 


DISEASES  223 

thus  formed,  though  usually  about  I  inch  long,  may  girdle  the  fruit 
and  extend  to  the  core.  The  cracks  often  intersect,  forming  a  cross. 
The  character  of  the  spots  is  not  always  the  same  on  the  different 
varieties.  There  are  all  variations,  from  the  quite  large,  much 
fringed,  and  smooth  spots  on  the  Missouri  variety  to  the  small, 
compact,  and  often  umbonate  spots  on  the  Limbertwig.  An 
occasional  spot  somewhat  rectangular  in  shape  may  be  decidedly 
sunken  and  quite  black,  with  a  definite  margin. 

Within  a  few  days  after  the  spots  become  visible,  black  pycnidia 
begin  to  develop  on  the  diseased  areas.  Three,  four,  or  many  more 
occur  on  each  spot,  and  are  scattered  promiscuously  or  grouped  on 
a  small  blister  cracked  around  the  margin. 

The  general  effect  of  the  blotches  on  the  fruit  is  to  mar  its  ap- 
pearance and  render  it  unfit  for  packing.  Moderately  affected  fruit, 
especially  if  not  badly  cracked,  may  be  evaporated,  but  much  of  it 
cannot  be  used  even  for  this  purpose  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
paring,  and  is  a  total  loss  except  where  it  can  be  used  for  vinegar. 
A  large  percentage  of  the  affected  fruit  drops  prematurely  and 
unless  utilized  immediately  is  a  total  loss. 

Bitter  rot  (Glomerella  rufomaculans,  Berk,  and  Sp.  &  Von  Sen.). 
Of  all  diseases  of  the  apple,  bitter  rot  is  one  of  those  most  to  be 
feared  and  fought.  It  is  the  most  insidious  because  of  its  erratic 
behavior.  It  appears  with  great  suddenness,  laying  waste  in  a 
few  days  or  weeks  all  the  careful  work  of  the  orchardist.  Few, 
if  any,  advance  notices  of  its  appearances  are  served,  and  the  only 
effective  campaign  that  can  be  waged  against  it  is  that  of  preven- 
tion. Once  well  started,  an  outbreak  can  at  best  only  be  checked. 
The  fact  that  the  disease  does  not  appear  to  a  destructive  extent  in 
successive  years  and  that  the  outbreaks  come  without  warning  makes 
the  grower  feel  inclined  to  take  a  chance  at  its  nonappearance  and 
to  dispense  with  preventive  sprayings.  This  "  gambling,"  however, 
often  results  in  a  loss  of  all  or  a  large  part  of  the  apple  crop.  It  is 
always  the  part  of  economy  to  prepare  each  year  for  the  possible 
appearance  of  the  rot.  It  should  be  mentioned,  however,  that  some 
varieties  are  much  more  susceptible  to  this  disease  than  others, 
two  of  those  which  show  little  resistance  being  the  Ben  Davis  and 
the  Shockley.  Many  other  varieties  can  be  easily  determined  by 
investigating  in  the  orchard. 


224  THE  APPLE 

Bitter  rot  is  caused  by  a  fungus,  and  not  by  wet  weather  as  many 
growers  believe.  Hot,  muggy,  or  showery  weather  in  summer  is 
the  most  important  factor  in  the  development  and  spread  of  the 
disease.  Where  such  weather  conditions  obtain  for  any  length  of 
time  after  apples  are  half  grown,  bitter  rot  is  almost  certain  to  de- 
velop. Rains  spread  the  disease  by  washing  the  spores  from  affected 
fruits  to  healthy  fruits.  The  rot  usually  does  not  appear  on  the 
fruit  until  the  early  part  of  July.    It  makes  its  first  appearance  on 


%  h-A  . 


Fig.  ioo.    Bitter  rot.    (University  of  Maine) 

the  apple  as  very  small,  brownish-colored  specks  beneath  the  skin, 
which  grow  quickly,  assuming  a  circular  outline.  The  diseased  area 
becomes  sunken  and  increases  rapidly,  the  infection  radiating  by 
concentric  rings  with  clear-cut  margins.  The  mycelium  of  the  fun- 
gus penetrates  the  flesh  of  the  fruit,  involving  the  tissues  in  a  soft, 
brownish,  cone-shaped  decomposition.  The  small  black  spots  which 
appear  beneath  the  skin  of  the  diseased  circles  finally  break  through 
and  give  off  the  spores  or  seeds  of  the  disease.  The  spore  masses 
are  pinkish  in  color,  and  are  readily  washed  about  by  rain  and 


DISEASES 


:25 


infect  the  sound  fruit,  as  already  stated.  Infections  are  most  readily 
made  through  breaks  or  abrasions  in  the  skin  of  the  fruit,  quick 
and  complete  decay  following  the  entrance  of  the  spores.  Insect 
punctures,  therefore,  have  a  direct  relation  to  bitter-rot  outbreaks. 

Treatment.  The  best  results  in  fighting  the  bitter  rot  have  been 
obtained  from  sprayings  made  with  the  prepared  lime-sulphur  solu- 
tion in  the  early  summer  (until  the  middle  or  last  of  June),  and  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  from  about  July  I 
to  the  time  of 
the  last  spraying. 
In  ic)ii-i9i2,at 
Cornelia,  Geor- 
gia, such  a  spray- 
ing schedule,  the 
work  of  W.  W. 
Chase,  assistant 
state  entomolo- 
gist, resulted  in 
practical  freedom 
from  bitter  rot, 
while  unsprayed 
plats  were  freely 
infected. 

The  removal 
of  all  mummied 
fruits  from  the 
trees  and  ground 
and  of  the  can- 
kered limbs,  or  the  cutting  out  of  cankered  areas  and  a  subse- 
quent disinfection  and  filling-in  of  these  with  cement,  are  valuable 
aids  in  the  work. 

Fruit  spot  {Cylindrosporium  pomi).  This  disease  is  especially 
common  in  New  England,  but  is  becoming  known  in  other  north- 
eastern states  and  Canada.  It  is  so  frequently  found  on  the  Baldwin 
that  it  has  received  the  name  Baldwin  fruit  spot. 

During  August  minute  spots  or  specks  appear  on  the  surface  of 
the  fruit.  They  are  at  first  very  small,  with  a  reddish  color  if  upon 
the  red  cheek  of  the  apple,  and  of  a  deeper  green  color  if  found 


FlG.  ioi.    Brown  rot  (ScUrotinia fructigena) 

Similar  to  brown-rot  disease  affecting  peaches  and  plums 
(L'niversity  of  Maine) 


226  THE  APPLE 

on  the  yellow  or  green  surface  of  the  fruit,  but  as  they  increase  in 
size  they  become  sunken  and  brown. 

Control  measures  consist  in  spraying  with  a  fungicide  like 
Bordeaux  mixture  or  lime-sulphur,  generally  a  weak  solution,  any 
time  before  the  last  of  June. 

Cedar  rust  and  scab.  For  a  discussion  of  these  diseases  the 
reader  is  referred  to  diseases  affecting  leaves,  pages  215-217. 

Sooty  blotch  and  fly-speck  fungus  (Leptothyrium  pomi  [Mont. 
&  Fr.]  Sacc).  In  ordinary  seasons  the  sooty  blotch  appears  chiefly 
on  apples  grown  in  low,  moist  situations.  The  Peck,  Rhode  Island 
Greening,  and  Rome  Beauty  are  conspicuously  affected  by  it.   This 


Fig.  102.    Sooty  blotch.    (Courtesy  of  Michigan  Farmer) 

disease  causes  two  kinds  of  spots  —  a  large  sooty  spot,  apparently 
made  by  a  fungous  mycelium,  which  spreads  over  the  whole  of 
the  discolored  area,  and  a  small  fly-speck  spot,  also  of  fungous 
origin.  Both  kinds  of  spots  may  occur  on  the  same  specimen  ;  in 
fact,  it  is  rare  to  find  an  apple  affected  with  one  that  does  not 
show  the  other  also.  The  fungus  of  both  spots  is  evidently  para- 
sitic in  character,  but  appears  to  be  quite  superficial,  occasioning 
no  hardening  of  the  skin  or  cracking  of  the  apple,  as  in  the  case 
of  apple  scab,  but  diminishing  the  brightness  of  the  skin  and  the 
market  value  of  the  fruit.  From  some  reports  it  would  seem  that 
the  fungus  may  develop  after  the  apples  have  been  packed  in 
barrels  and  stored. 


DISEASES  227 

A  single  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  applied  at  the  time 
the  apples  are  the  size  of  hickory  nuts  or  larger,  would  prevent 
most,  if  not  all,  of  this  spotting.  For  the  Maiden's  Blush,  Grimes, 
and  Belmont,  and  fair-skinned  varieties  generally,  the  spraying 
should  be  done  earlier  to  avoid  russeting  the  fruit. 

Spongy  dry  rot  (Volutella  fructi).  This  disease  shows  itself 
as  a  rotten  black  spot  which  increases  in  size  until  it  eventually 
encompasses  the  whole  fruit.  The  central  and  older  portions  of 
the  decayed  region  are  of  an  intense  coal-black  color,  while  the 
younger  region  —  the  outer  border,  which  is  about  five  eighths  of 
an  inch  wide  —  is  brownish. 

Close  inspection  reveals  the  presence  of  slightly  elevated  pimple- 
like places  in  the  cuticle.  These  are  found  to  within  about  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  of  the  edge  of  the  spot,  and  become  larger  and  more  pro- 
nounced as  the  center  of  the  spot  is  approached  ;  indeed,  the  black 
color  of  the  spot  seems  to  be  due  to  the  large  number  of  these  pimples 
crowding  its  surface.  In  many  instances  there  is  no  other  pecu- 
liar development  and  the  disease  might  readily  pass  for  the  ordi- 
nary black  rot,  caused  by  Sphseropsis,  and  doubtless  is  often  taken 
for  it.  In  the  older  spots,  however,  the  pimples  break  through 
the  cuticle  of  the  apple,  each  appearing  as  a  small  wartlike  excres- 
cence, which  a  good  lens  shows  to  be  thickly  covered  with  stiff 
black  hairs.  These  hairs  are  the  chief  characteristic  of  this  disease, 
and  when  present  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  Sphaeropsis  rot.  An 
open  apple  shows  a  brownish  zone,  the  latest-affected  part,  around 
a  black  area.  Although  the  decayed  portions  are  softer  than  the 
healthy  ones,  this  is  in  no  sense  a  wet  rot,  the  softness  being  a 
spongy  dryness  rather  than  any  watery  breaking  down  of  tissue. 

Diseases  affecting  the  Fruit  in  Storage 

Pink  rot  (Cephalothecium  roseum).  This  fungus,  which  has  been 
so  destructive  to  apples  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  is  very  char- 
acteristic in  appearance  and  is  frequently  called  the  "  pink  fungus  " 
by  fruit-growers.  The  examination  of  an  apple  affected  by  this 
disease  in  its  more  advanced  stage  will  disclose  one  or  more  pink 
spots  somewhat  circular  and  sunken.  Around  the  fungus  and  in 
the  edge  of  the  depressed  portion  the  skin  is  brown. 


THE  APPLE 


The  apple-scab  fungus  usually  precedes  the  pink  rot,  growing 
beneath  the  skin,  and  as  it  matures,  rupturing  the  skin  and  leav- 
ing the  edges  somewhat  upturned.  It  is  near  the  upturned  edge 
that  the  pink  fungus  so  often  makes  its  beginning,  forming  a 
ring  of  mold.  The  entire  scab  spot,  however,  is  usually  covered 
with  a  white  mold,  which  gradually  changes  to  a  pink  or  a  rose 
color  as  it  is  dusted  over  with  the  pale  rose-colored  spores. 

The  first  change  in  the  appearance  of  the  apples  is  that  the 
skin  around  the  spots  turns  brown.    This  brown  area  gradually 

extends  in  all  direc- 
tions, the  various  spots 
merging  with  one  an- 
other until  a  large  part 
or  the  entire  surface  of 
the  apple  is  covered. 
As  the  spots  increase 
in  size  they  also  sink. 
The  sinking  may  be 
due  not  only  to  the 
dissolving  of  the  solid 
parts  of  the  apple  by 
the  fungus  but  also  to 
evaporation  of  water 
through  the  spots. 
The  flesh  beneath  the 
sunken  spots  is  brown 
like  the  skin  above  it 
and  is  bitter  to  the  taste. 
Is  the  pink  fungus  a  parasite  ?  In  order  to  determine  the  method 
of  attack  of  this  fungus,  apples  were  inoculated  with  a  pure  culture 
of  the  spores.  These  spores  were  placed  on  the  scab  spots  of  apples 
which  were  free  from  the  pink  fungus,  and  also  on  sound  apples. 
Other  fruits  free  from  the  fungus  spores  were  kept  as  checks.  The 
apples  having  scab  wounds  were  easily  inoculated,  but  the  sound 
fruit  was  not  affected.  Apples  which  were  suspected  as  being  already 
affected  by  the  fungus  were  thoroughly  disinfected  and  subjected  to 
the  same  tests  with  the  same  results.  The  fungus  developed  in  the 
tissues  of  the  apple  only  where  a  wound  had  previously  been  made. 


Fig.  103.   Pink  rot  following  scab.    (University 
of  Maine) 


DISEASES 


229 


As  with  most  fungi,  considerable  moisture  is  necessary  to  its 
vigorous  growth.  This  it  finds  among  apples  which  have  been 
piled  in  heaps  or  put  into  tight  barrels,  or  in  various  places  of 
ordinary  storage  where  moisture  is  easily  conserved. 

Greenings  and  Baldwins  are  both  very  susceptible  to  the  fungus, 
especially  the  former.  In  searching  the  markets  of  Ithaca,  New 
York,  for  Greenings 
affected  by  the  scab, 
for  experimental  pur- 
poses, none  were 
found  that  were  not 
also  victims  of  the 
pink  fungus. 

This  disease  is 
supposed  to  attack 
only  apples  already 
parasitized  by  apple 
scab.  If  this  is  the 
case,  the  first  and 
obvious  thing  to  do 
is  to  prevent  apple 
scab.  Fruit-growers 
are  familiar  with  the 
treatment  of  this  dis- 
ease, which  is  pre- 
ventive. The  tree  is  covered  with  a  protective  coating  of  Bordeaux 
mixture,  which  prevents  the  germination  of  the  spores  from  which 
the  parasitic  plant  is  developed.  When  the  parasite  becomes  es- 
tablished, remedies  are  relatively  ineffective.  While  a  scab  spot 
will  cease  to  enlarge  if  thoroughly  covered  with  Bordeaux  mixture, 
no  amount  of  doctoring  will  fully  repair  the  injury. 


Fig.  104.    Blue-mold  decay  [Penicillium) 

A  rot  of  ripe  apples  —  often  seen  where  apples  have  been 
bruised  by  careless  handling.    (University  of  Maine) 


CHAPTER  XX 

SPRAYING 

Older  orchardists  often  tell  us  that  successful  fruit-growing  is 
impossible  at  the  present  time  because  of  the  great  increase  in 
the  number  of  diseases  and  insect  enemies  with  which  the  fruit- 
grower must  contend.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  difficulties 
of  the  fruit-grower  have  greatly  increased,  for  not  only  have  many 
new  fruit  pests  been  brought  from  foreign  countries,  but  the  stand- 
ard of  marketable  fruit  has  been  constantly  raised  until,  at  the 
present  time,  first-class  fruit  must  be  practically  free  from  all 
blemishes.  But  to  offset  these  discouragements  is  the  fact  that 
at  no  time  in  the  past  have  we  had  such  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  means  of  combating  these  pests  or  such  efficient  apparatus. 
The  up-to-date  fruit-grower  therefore  fears  his  insect  and  plant- 
disease  enemies  less  to-day  than  he  did  half  a  century  ago. 

A  man  who  thoroughly  understands  spraying  as  related  to  suc- 
cessful fruit-growing  has  little  to  fear  from  the  enemies  of  the 
orchard.  While  simple  in  itself,  spraying  is  somewhat  complex 
from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  in  checking  fungi  and  insects. 
To  obtain  the  best  results  the  grower  must  have  a  working 
knowledge  of  the  habits  and  methods  of  feeding  of  the  insects 
which  prey  upon  the  orchard,  so  as  to  be  able  to  attack  each  at 
the  most  vulnerable  point  in  its  development  and  in  the  most  eco- 
nomical manner ;  he  must  know  how  to  prevent  the  introduction 
of  fungus  and  bacterial  disease,  and  how  to  combat  them  once  they 
have  gained  entrance  ;  he  must  understand  the  value  of  different 
fungicides  and  insecticides,  the  manner  and  the  time  of  applica- 
tion, and  the  proper  amounts  to  use  ;  he  must  secure  efficient, 
up-to-date  apparatus ;  and  since  thoroughness  is  the  secret  of  suc- 
cessful spraying,  he  must  see  that  the  work  is  thoroughly  done. 

It  will  be  a  help  to  the  orchardist  also  to  keep  these  suggestions 
in  mind  :  (i)  buy  good  stock  and  make  sure  that  it  is  free  from 
plant  pests  by  personally  inspecting  it  and  having  it  inspected  by 


SPRAYING 


231 


official  inspectors  ;  (2)  give  the  pests  as  little  chance  as  possible,  by 
destroying  all  breeding  places,  such  as  volunteer,  neglected  trees, 
rubbish  which  may  harbor  insects  over  winter,  and  secondary  hosts 
which  may  help  to  propagate  injurious  insects  and  plant  diseases  ; 
(3)  keep  trees  healthy  and  vigorous  ;  (4)  prevent  decay  or  the  en- 
trance of  disease  into  the  trunk  or  branches  of  the  tree  by  intelli- 
gent pruning  and  by  protecting  the  exposed  surfaces  ;  (5)  clean 
out,  disinfect,  and  fill  the  holes  if  decay  does  start ;  (6)  gather  from 
the  tree  and  the  ground  all  injured  or  diseased  fruit  and  destroy  it. 


PS 

M| 

12     ' 

*j  -•;*,! 

l 

tiSk$t 

. 

'•A- 

Fig.  105.    A  power  sprayer 
A  large  type  of  practical  orchard  sprayer  out  in  the  orchard  ready  for  work 


The  good  effects  of  cultivation  in  the  orchard  are  by  no  means 
confined  to  making  available  the  food  supplies  contained  in  the 
soil  and  to  the  conservation  of  moisture.  Cultivation  also  assists 
materially  in  controlling  the  fungous  and  insect  pests  of  the  orchard, 
particularly  the  latter. 

It  is  an  old  story  that  orchards  should  not  be  sprayed  with  any 
arsenical  spray  during  their  bloom,  both  for  fear  of  killing  the 
bees  that  pollinate  them  and  for  fear  the  spray  will  itself  injure 
the  stigmas  or  pollen.  Recent  investigation,  however,  seems  to 
show  that  spraying  an  apple  tree  in  bloom  does  not  do  so  much 
damage  to  bees  visiting  the  tree  as  has  been  supposed  ;  though 
there  is  still  room  for  further  test  experiments.    But,  on  the  other 


232 


THE  APPLE 


hand,  it  is  now  thoroughly  established  by  experience  (and  it  con- 
forms to  common  sense  too)  that  there  is  a  great  and  ruinous 
danger  to  bees  from  spraying  an  apple  orchard  at  a  time  when  a 
cover  crop  of  clover  under  the  trees  is  in  bloom,  whether  the  trees 
are  in  bloom  or  not.  Of  course  the  spray  falls  down  into  the 
clover,  and  clover  blossoms  have  just  the  right  funnel  arrangement 
to  concentrate  the  poison.    In  considerable  parts  of  Colorado  the 


Bees  and  the  orchard 


An  orchard  in  full  bloom,  predicting,  if  nature  wills,  a  full  crop  of  the  choicest  of  fruits. 
At  this  period  spraying  may  do  injury  to  bees  and  other  insects 


beekeepers  have  had  to  move  their  bees  away  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  orchards,  far  enough  to  be  beyond  a  bee's  ordinary  flight ; 
those  who  stayed  by  the  orchards  have  lost  almost  all  their  stock 
of  bees  ;  and  this  was  not  on  account  of  spraying  while  in  bloom 
(which  is  now  prohibited  by  law  in  Colorado)  but  on  account  of 
spraying  when  the  clover  under  the  trees  was  in  bloom. 

The  spraying  appears  to  kill  not  only  the  bees  that  visit  the 
flowers  but  also  the  larval  bees  in  the  hive,  to  which  the  poisoned 
honey  is  carried  back.    One  might  easily  stir  up  a  scare  about 


SPRAYING  233 

danger  to  human  beings  who  might  eventually  eat  honey  from  that 
hive,  but  doubtless  the  bees  die  off  too  fast  to  lay  up  a  store  that 
would  hurt  human  beings  much.  Wasps  would  not  be  in  the 
same  danger  in  this  respect,  because  they  feed  their  young  not  on 
honey  but  on  caterpillars,  etc. ;  but  wasps  are  much  less  valuable 
than  bees  in  securing  a  good  set  of  apples  on  the  tree. 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  Long  Island  Agronomist,  which  had  for 
some  years  been  urging  the  farmers  and  gardeners  of  Long  Island 
not  only  to  spray  diligently,  but  to  prefer  Pyrox  (a  preparation 
containing  both  arsenic  and  copper)  to  any  other  spray  for  most 
purposes  both  as  insecticide  and  as  fungicide,  complained  in  the 
fall  of  19 1 4  that  the  Long  Island  cucumber  crop  of  that  year  was 
40  per  cent  below  normal  because  there  were  not  bees  enough  to 
pollinize  the  blossoms. 

The  precaution  generally  approved  is  to  plow  or  mow.  If  a 
cover  crop  is  to  be  plowed  under,  it  should  on  all  accounts  be 
plowed  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  bloom  ;  and  plowing  at  any  date 
before  you  spray  saves  the  bees.  If  plowing  is  not  in  your  plan, 
mow  the  clover  (if  in  bloom  at  all)  just  before  spraying  ;  it  thus 
ceases  to  rob  the  ground  of  valuable  moisture,  and  the  stalks 
can  profitably  be  disked  into  the  soil  as  soon  as  they  wilt. 

Dr.  A.  J.  Cook,  Horticultural  Commissioner  of  California,  sug- 
gests that  the  cover  crop  be  not  clover  but  vetches,  which  help 
the  soil  as  clover  does,  and  bloom  after  spraying  is  over.  Yellow 
annual  sweet  clover  is  also  thought  well  of  in  California.  Any 
plant  whose  blossom  droops  so  that  a  shower  from  above  runs 
down  outside  the  petals,  and  cannot  get  inside,  ought  to  be  safe. 

Another  suggestion  that  has  been  made  is  that  whenever  the 
spray  is  poisonous  to  bees  it  should  be  mixed  with  enough  tobacco 
tea  so  that  the  odor  will  keep  bees  away  from  the  sprayed  area  till 
the  poisoned  blossoms  have  had  time  to  wilt.  This  suggestion  has 
not  been  tested  in  practice  to  determine  the  amount  of  tobacco  that 
would  have  to  be  used  to  make  it  effective. 

The  need  of  spraying.  During  the  year  19 10  the  fruit  crop 
was  almost  a  total  failure  in  some  of  the  states.  Nearly  everyone 
assumed  that  in  191 1  there  would  be  no  worms  because  of  the 
lack  of  fruit  to  furnish  food  and  breeding  ground  for  the  pests. 
The  fallacy  of  this  reasoning  was  proved,  however,  by  the  great 


234  THE  APPLE 

increase  in  the  number  of  the  insects  and  by  the  worm  infestation 
of  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  fruit  the  following  season. 

The  lesson  taught  by  this  costly  experience  is  that  if  we  would 
produce  fruit  sound  and  free  from  blemish,  which  will  keep  long 
enough  to  be  in  good  market  condition  when  demands  are  greatest 
and  will  be  attractive  enough  to  draw  the  best  prices  and  to  net 
returns  sufficient  to  make  fruit-growing  profitable,  then  we  must 
spray  thoroughly  and  with  judgment  every  year — not  spasmodically 
or  carelessly  as  our  fancy  may  dictate. 

What  to  spray  for.  The  protection  of  apples  against  insects 
and  diseases  by  spraying  is  really  a  simple  matter.  It  may  be 
divided  into  four  common  forms  of  treatment : 

i.  The  use  of  fungicide  to  prevent  the  germination  of  the 
spores  of  fungous  diseases,  such  as  apple  scab.  Bordeaux  mixture 
and  lime-sulphur  are  the  leading  fungicides. 

2.  The  use  of  an  arsenical  poison  (a  poison  with  arsenic  as  its 
base)  in  controlling  biting  insects.  The  codling  moth  and  all  the 
leaf-eating  insects  come  under  this  head.  Lead  arsenate,  arsenate 
of  lime,  Paris  green,  etc.  are  the  best  arsenical  insecticides. 

3.  The  use  of  a  contact  poison  like  kerosene  emulsion,  whale- 
oil  soap,  or  tobacco  solution  to  destroy  sucking  insects.  Plant 
lice  and  many  of  the  true  bugs  are  controlled  in  this  way. 

4.  The  use  of  a  lime-sulphur  wash  as  a  winter  or  early  spring 
spray  against  scale  insects  such  as  the  San  Jose  scale  or  the  oyster- 
shell  bark  louse. 

The  first  two  of  these  forms  of  treatment  are  those  most  com- 
monly employed,  and  may  be  successfully  combined. 


Materials  to  use 

Lime-sulphur,  self-boiled.  Formula :  8  pounds  stone  lime, 
8  pounds  sulphur,  and  water  enough  to  make  50  gallons. 

It  is  often  convenient  to  prepare  the  self-boiled  mixture  in  a 
barrel,  using  quantities  about  three  times  that  of  the  regular  for- 
mula —  that  is,  24  pounds  of  lime,  24  pounds  of  sulphur,  and 
about  150  gallons  of  water.  The  larger  quantity  of  lime  slaked 
at  one  time  results  in  a  greater  amount  of  heat  than  is  obtained 
by  preparing  it  in  three  8-pound  lots,  as  suggested  by  the  standard 


SPRAYING 


235 


formula.  It  is  also  much  more  economical  from  the  standpoint 
of  time  and  labor  to  prepare  it  in  quantity.  The  mixture  can  be 
prepared  in  quantities  four  to  five  times  that  of  the  standard  for- 
mula if  one  has  a  vessel  large  enough,  but  such  quantities  cannot 
be  prepared  in  an  ordinary  barrel,  for  in  this  case  they  cannot  be 
kept  properly  stirred  while  the  lime  is  slaking. 

First  moisten  the  sulphur  with  water,  breaking  up  all  lumps 
and  stirring  thoroughly  to  form  a  thick  paste.    Place  the  lime  in 


Fig.  107.    Spraying  trees  in  Colorado 

A  two-and-one-half  horse-power  engine,  a  150-gallon  tank,  three  men,  and  a  pair  of  horses 
will  cover  a  large  number  of  trees  with  spray  material  in  a  day 

a  barrel  and  add  just  enough  water  to  start  vigorous  slaking.  As 
soon  as  the  slaking  is  well  started,  add  the  moistened  sulphur.  Stir 
the  mixture  continually,  adding  sufficient  water  to  maintain  a  thin 
paste  to  keep  the  lime  actively  slaking  and  yet  prevent  burning. 

Quick,  active-slaking  lime  should  be  used  in  preparing  this 
mixture,  because  lime  which  is  sluggish  does  not  produce  sufficient 
heat.  If  the  lime  does  not  slake  readily,  warm  water  should  be 
used  ;  otherwise  cold  water  will  be  found  satisfactory.  The  lime 
should  supply  heat  enough  to  boil  the  mixture  violently  for  several 


236  THE  APPLE 

minutes.  The  time  at  which  the  cold  water  should  be  added  to 
cool  the  mixture  and  prevent  further  action  varies  according  to  the 
activeness  of  the  lime.  If  the  mixture  remains  hot  too  long,  an 
excess  of  soluble  sulphur  will  be  formed,  which  is  injurious  to 
peach  foliage.  It  is  therefore  very  important  that  all  action  should 
be  stopped  at  the  proper  time,  which,  generally  speaking,  is  just 
as  soon  as  the  apparent  action  of  the  lime  has  ceased. 

The  final  mixture  should  consist  of  finely  divided  lime  and  sul- 
phur with  only  a  slight  amount  of  soluble  sulphur.  This  finely 
divided  lime  and  sulphur  will  settle  very  quickly,  leaving  a  clear 
solution  above.  The  clear  solution  should  be  orange  yellow  in 
color,  due  to  the  soluble  sulphur  it  contains.  If  the  clear  solution 
presents  a  distinctly  red  appearance,  similar  to  that  of  concentrated 
lime-sulphur,  it  indicates  an  excessive  amount  of  soluble  sulphur, 
which  may  injure  the  tender  foliage.  A  few  practical  tests  will 
enable  anyone  to  prepare  this  spray  and  to  recognize  mixtures 
having  a  dangerous  amount  of  soluble  sulphur. 

It  is  best  to  apply  the  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  as  soon  as  possible 
after  it  has  been  prepared,  although  it  may  be  kept  for  a  time 
without  loss.  The  mixture  should  be  thoroughly  stirred,  and  well 
strained  when  transferred  from  the  barrel  to  the  spray  tank.  It  is 
very  important  that  the  outfit  used  to  apply  this  spray  be  provided 
with  an  agitator  that  will  stir  the  mixture  thoroughly,  because  of 
the  large  amount  of  heavy  sediment  contained.  Thorough  agita- 
tion is  especially  important  when  the  self-boiled  formula  is  used 
in  combination  with  arsenate  of  lead. 

Concentrated  lime-sulphur,  commercial.  The  commercial  lime- 
sulphur  can  be  had  from  practically  all  the  insecticide  companies, 
and  varies  in  price  according  to  the  amount  purchased.  In  barrel 
lots  (50  gallons)  it  costs  about  $9.00  delivered  ;  in  half  barrels, 
20  cents  per  gallon  ;  in  ten-gallon  lots,  2  5  cents  ;  in  five-gallon 
lots,  between  30  and  40  cents ;  and  by  the  gallon,  from  50  to 
75  cents.  In  ten-barrel  lots  it  will  cost  about  $8.25  per  barrel. 
This  material  tests  from  32  to  35  degrees  Baume,  and  should  be 
clean  and  bright,  without  any  sediment.  Because  of  the  varia- 
tion the  hydrometer  should  always  be  used  so  that  the  exact 
strength  may  be  known.  When  properly  diluted,  there  is  little  or 
no  danger  of  burning  apple-tree  foliage. 


SPRAYING  237 

Concentrated  lime-sulphur,  homemade.  The  same  material  can 
be  made  at  home  much  more  cheaply  if  the  number  of  trees  war- 
rants purchasing  the  material  in  quantity.  For  small  orchards  — 
up  to  200  trees  —  it  is  probably  better  to  buy  it,  as  the  making 
is  somewhat  disagreeable  and  requires  some  experience. 

A  formula  giving  good  results  is  40  pounds  lime,  80  pounds 
sulphur,  and  50  gallons  water.  Other  formulas  that  can  be  used 
are  50  pounds  lime,  100  pounds  sulphur,  and  50  gallons  water, 
or  55  pounds  lime,  1 10  pounds  sulphur,  and  60  gallons  water. 

If  live  steam  is  available,  it  is  possible  to  make  the  lime-sulphur 
in  a  wooden  tank  at  a  very  small  cost.  Where  steam  is  not  avail- 
able a  kettle  with  a  capacity  of  from  25  to  50  gallons  is  generally 
used. 

Put  about  10  gallons  in  the  kettle  and  heat ;  add  the  lime,  and 
after  it  has  started  to  slake  in  good  shape,  add  the  dry  sulphur 
and  mix  thoroughly.  When  the  mixture  is  through  slaking,  add 
water  enough  to  make  50  gallons  and  boil  for-  about  an  hour. 
More  water  will  have  to  be  added  from  time  to  time  as  it  boils 
away,  so  as  to  keep  the  mixture  at  the  50-gallon  mark,  and  more 
or  less  stirring  will  be  necessary  while  the  cooking  is  going  on. 
After  it  is  cooked,  the  mixture  should  stand  long  enough  to  allow 
the  sediment  to  settle  to  the  bottom  ;  then  the  clear  solution  should 
be  dipped  out  and  strained  into  a  tight  barrel.  When  it  is  cool 
the  Baume  reading  should  "be  taken  and  marked  on  the  barrel. 
If  the  reading  is  taken  while  the  solution  is  warm,  it  may  not 
register  the  actual  strength.  The  barrel  should  be  closed  tightly 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  should  be  stored  in  a  place  not  subject 
to  very  low  temperature.  It  is  not  advisable  to  keep  it  in  storage 
a  long  time,  for  it  is  better  when  used  immediately. 

The  principal  difficulty  is  to  obtain  a  mixture  of  high  density 
having  a  small  amount  of  sediment.  The  sediment  may  vary  from 
2  to  30  pounds,  the  density  from  31  to  24  degrees  Baume.  Clean 
lime  freshly  burned  and  guaranteed  at  least  90  per  cent  calcium 
oxide  aids  greatly  in  reducing  the  amount  of  sediment,  and  this 
the  grower  should  always  demand.  The  cost  of  the  homemade 
mixture  will  vary  from  S3. 00  to  S5.00  per  barrel  according  to  the 
cost  of  the  materials,  the  manner  of  making,  and  the  density 
obtained.    The  cost  of  the  sulphur  will  be  from  2  to  4  cents  per 


238  THE  APPLE 

pound  ;  of  the  lime,  from  '$  to  i  cent  per  pound  ;  and  of  labor, 
from  30  to  60  cents  per  barrel. 

The  solution  obtained  by  following  the  above  directions  should 
never  be  used  at  full  strength,  but  should  be  diluted  with  water, 
the  amount  depending  on  its  density  and  the  condition  of  the  trees 
to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.  If  directions  are  carefully  followed, 
a  solution  should  be  obtained  having  a  specific  gravity  between 
1.24  and  1.27.  Mixtures  prepared  with  exactly  the  same  grade 
of  materials  may  vary  somewhat  in  density,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  means  of  testing  them.  Accurate  tests  may  be  made  with 
a  hydrometer  having  a  specific-gravity  scale,  it  being  essential  of 
course  to  use  an  instrument  made  for  testing  liquids  heavier  than 
water.  A  hydrometer  for  testing  lime-sulphur  should  have  a  scale 
ranging  from  1.00  to  1.32  or  1.35  specific  gravity. 

A  lime-sulphur  mixture  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.03  will 
control  the  San  Jose  scale,  and  therefore  is  efficient  for  all  appli- 
cations made  when  the  trees  are  dormant.  For  spraying  apple  and 
pear  trees  in  foliage,  it  is  not  safe  to  use  this  mixture  at  a  strength 
greater  than  1.01  specific  gravity. 

To  determine  the  proper  amount  of  water  to  use  with  each  gallon 
of  a  home-boiled  or  commercial  concentrated  lime-sulphur  mixture, 
divide  the  decimal  of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  concentrate  by  the 
decimal  of  the  desired  spray.  For  example,  if  the  specific  gravity 
reading  of  the  concentrate  is  1 .24,  divide  .24  by  .03  to  get  a  spray 
of  1 .03  specific  gravity.  The  result  is  8,  which  is  the  number  of 
dilutions  required.  In  other  words,  in  every  8  gallons  of  spray 
mixture  there  should  be  1  gallon  of  concentrate  and  7  gallons  of 
water.  This  means  that  in  50  gallons  of  spray  solution  there  should 
be  6\  gallons  of  concentrate  and  43?  gallons  of  water. 

Bordeaux  mixture.  This  material  is  being  used  less  and  less 
each  year  in  orchard  spraying.  So  much  fruit  has  been  russeted 
and  so  much  foliage  burned  by  it  that  growers  have  generally  taken 
lime-sulphur  as  a  substitute.  It  is  still  used  to  a  certain  extent, 
however,  and  gives  good  results  in  some  cases. 

The  formula  3-3-50  is  used  more  than  any  other  in  orchard 
work.  An  excess  of  lime  is  not  recommended,  as  it  causes  a  slower 
action,  clogs  the  machinery  to  some  extent,  causes  an  uneven  appli- 
cation, and  is  more  readily  washed  from  the  trees.    In  wet  seasons 


SPRAYING 


239 


it  may  cause  the  mixture  to  be  efficient  for  a  longer  period  and 
thus  lessen  the  danger  of  injury. 

Suspend  3  pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  or  bluestone,  in  2  5  gallons 
of  water  until  it  is  dissolved.  Slake  3  pounds  of  the  best  quick- 
lime that  can  be  obtained,  taking  care  not  to  use  an  excess  of  water  ; 
then  add  enough  water  to  make  a  whitewash.  Strain  to  remove 
lumps,  and  add  sufficient  water  to  make  25  gallons.    Pour  the  two 


Fig.  108.    Spraying  equipment 

Elevated  platform,  at  the  right,  for  preparing  Bordeaux  mixture.    The  larger  tank  on  the 
higher  platform  is  for  water  storage.   Types  of  spray  rigs.    (University  of  Maine) 


solutions  into  a  barrel,  and  test  to  find  out  if  any  free  copper  is 
present.    To  make  the  test,  proceed  as  follows  : 

1 .  Take  a  portion  of  the  clear  fluid  that  is  left  on  top  after  the 
sediment  settles  and  put  in  a  saucer.  Blow  gently  over  the  surface. 
If  a  thin  white  pellicle  forms  over  the  top,  there  is  lime  enough. 

2.  Immerse  a  newly  filed  piece  of  steel  for  a  minute  or  so.  If 
it  becomes  coated  with  copper,  more  lime  is  required. 

Whale-oil  soap.  Whale-oil  soap,  which  has  the  peculiar  charac- 
teristic of  remaining  liquid  when  cold,  has  greater  penetrating 
powers  than  other  soaps  and  is  more  fatal  to  insect  life.  The 
formula  is  1  pound  of  soap  to  2  gallons  of  water,  the  soap  being 


240  THE  APPLE 

cut  in  fine  pieces  and  dissolved  in  warm  water.  The  cost  of  the 
soap  varies  from  5  to  20  cents  per  pound. 

Kerosene  emulsion.  When  properly  made  and  diluted,  this 
material  proves  very  satisfactory  in  checking  the  work  of  the 
aphis.  It  must  be  carefully  prepared,  however,  else  it  will  burn 
the  foliage  severely.  The  formula  is  kerosene,  2  gallons ;  water, 
1  gallon  ;  soap,  \  pound. 

Heat  the  water  and  dissolve  the  soap  in  it.  Add  the  kerosene 
and  churn  or  mix  forcibly  with  a  force  pump  for  ten  minutes.  The 
mixture  should  be  smooth  and  creamy,  and  will  adhere  to  a  glass 
surface.  Dilute  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  emulsion  to  10  parts 
water  before  applying  to  foliage. 

Black  Leaf  40.  Black  Leaf  40  is  a  tobacco  extract  and  may  be 
purchased  from  dealers  in  spraying  supplies  or  from  seed  houses. 
Directions  for  diluting  are  given  on  each  bottle.  It  is  easily  and 
quickly  applied,  and  seems  bound  to  become  the  popular  aphis 
spray  for  summer  use. 

Paris  green.  Paris  green  is  fast  going  out  of  use  in  orchard  work 
because  of  the  free  arsenious  oxide  which  it  contains.  The  danger 
of  burning  the  foliage  is  too  great  to  justify  its  use. 

Commercial  arsenate  of  lead.  At  present  arsenate  of  lead  is 
used  more  than  any  other  poison  for  leaf-feeding  and  fruit-infesting 
insects.  It  can  be  bought  from  any  of  the  insecticide  companies 
and  from  local  dealers  at  prices  varying  from  7  to  20  cents  per 
pound.  It  should  not  cost  over  8  cents  in  100-pound  lots,  and 
small  growers  will  do  well  to  combine  their  orders  in  buying. 

The  commercial  paste  varies  in  water  content  from  25  to  50  per 
cent.  It  is  guaranteed  12  per  cent  arsenic  acid  (Aso05),  and  may 
run  as  high  as  20  or  25  per  cent.  It  should  not  contain  more  than 
.75  per  cent  soluble  arsenic. 

It  can  be  had  in  the  powdered  form,  about  1  per  cent  water  and 
25  per  cent  arsenic  acid,  but  is  usually  preferred  as  a  paste,  as 
it  stays  in  suspension  better  and  is  more  adhesive.  Care  should 
be  taken  when  it  is  purchased  in  quantity  to  keep  up  the  water 
content.  It  does  not  burn  the  foliage,  and  its  only  disadvantage 
is  that  it  is  relatively  slow-acting. 

Homemade  arsenate  of  lead.  Arsenate  of  lead  can  be  made  at 
home  by  using  acetate  lead,  1 1  ounces  ;  arsenate  soda,  4  ounces  ; 


SPRAYING 


-Mi 


water,  I  gallon.  Dissolve  the  soda  in  -*-  gallon  of  water,  and  in  a 
separate  pail  dissolve  the  lead,  also  in  }2  gallon  of  water.  When 
dissolved,  pour  the  two  together.  This  is  equivalent  to  I  pound 
of  the  paste,  provided  the  chemicals  used  are  of  good  quality. 

The  homemade  arsenate  of  lead  gives  as  good  satisfaction, 
when  properly  made,  as  the  commercial  brands,  and  in  some  cases 
it  lias  the  added  advantage  of  being  somewhat  cheaper. 


Compressed-air  sprayer 


Spraying  apple  trees  on  the  farm  of  M.  G.  Keenan  near  Oneonta,  New  Vork.  Second  spray- 
ing, lime-sulphur  and  arsenate  of  lead,  three  hundred  pounds'  pressure  used.    (Photograph 
by  F.  O.  Sibley,  Milford.  New  York) 

Miscible  oils.  Formulas  for  the  home  preparation  of  miscible 
oils  have  been  published  by  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station  and 
by  the  Storrs  Experiment  Station  of  Connecticut.  The  following 
suggestions  are  taken  from  a  recent  bulletin  of  the  latter  station. 
Note  that  there  are  three  parts  to  the  process  of  preparing  the  oil 
according  to  the  formulas  given,  and  also  that  the  author  uses  the 
term  "  soluble  oil  "  instead  of  miscible  oil. 

i.  The  making  of  the  emulsifier  is  the  most  complicated  part 
of  the  formula,  although  little  difficulty  will  be  experienced  if  the 
proper  materials  are  used. 


242  THE  APPLE 


EMULSIFIER 


Carbolic  acid  (crude  liquid  i  oo  per  cent)    ....       2  quarts 

Fish  oil 2i  quarts 

Caustic  potash  (granulated) 1  pound 

Heat  to  300  degrees  F.,  remove  from  the  fire,  and  immediately  add : 

Kerosene 3^  quarts 

Water 5$  quarts 

These  quantities  will  make  13  gallons  of  the  complete  soluble 
oil  or  416  gallons  of  the  spray  mixture.  It  may  be  made  up  in 
any  quantity  and  kept  indefinitely.  The  cooking  is  best  done  in 
an  iron  kettle  —  the  ordinary  kettle  or  caldron  such  as  is  commonly 
used  on  the  farm  for  making  soft  soap  will  answer  the  purpose. 
It  should  have  a  cover  and  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  readily  re- 
moved from  the  fire.  Since  the  mixture  is  inflammable  when  hot, 
the  kettle  should  not  be  more  than  half  filled,  to  allow  for  foam- 
ing, and  the  fire  must  be  kept  from  blazing  up  around  the  top. 
The  cooking  should  not  be  done  inside  or  near  a  building,  unless 
a  steam-coil  or  jacketed  kettle  is  used.  A  good  thermometer 
graduated  to  about  320  degrees  F.  will  be  necessary. 

The  various  materials  should  be  added  separately  in  the  order 
named  and  while  the  whole  is  being  stirred.  The  resultant  mix- 
ture will  thicken  up  and  present,  except  for  its  darker  color,  the 
appearance  of  soft  soap. 

2.  Although  the  soluble  oil  will  remain  in  good  condition  for 
a  long  time,  the  second  part  of  the  formula  should  be  prepared 
just  before  using. 

THE  COMPLETE  SOLUBLE  OIL 

Emulsifier 8  parts 

Crude  petroleum 18  parts 

Rosin  oil 4  Parts 

Water 1  part 

By  securing  the  materials  in  large  quantities  the  soluble  oil 
may  be  made  for  16  cents  or  18  cents  per  gallon.  If  diluted 
with  1 5  parts  water,  as  recommended,  the  spray  mixture  costs 
slightly  over  1  cent  per  gallon.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  its 
tendency  is  to  spread  when  applied  to  the  tree,  and  that  it  can  be 


SPRAYING 


243 


sprayed  with  a  fine  nozzle,  a  gallon  will  go  much  farther  than  the 
same  quantity  of  lime-sulphur. 

3.  To  use  the  soluble  oil,  stir  thoroughly,  and  to  1  part  oil  add 
15  parts  water.  When  about  to  mix  large  quantities,  it  is  well  to 
test  the  miscibility  of  the  oil  by  pouring  a  few  drops  in  a  glass  of 
water  and  stirring  it.  If 
a  good  milky  emulsion 
without  free  oil  on  the 
surface  is  formed,  the 
solution  is  all  right  to 
use.  The  spraying  uten- 
sils should  be  absolutely 
clean. 

It  should  also  be  noted 
that  Bordeaux  mixture, 
Paris  green,  or  lime- 
sulphur  are  liable  to  spoil 
the  emulsion. 

Other  materials.  Pyrox, 
Bordo  Lead,  Kil-o-scale, 
Target  Brand,  Antiscale, 
Scalecide,  and  a  number 
of  other  commercial  brands 
can  be  obtained  from  local 
dealers,  and  in  general  do 
very  good  work.  They  are 
usually  more  expensive 
than  the  regular  materials, 
and  are  not  superior. 
However,  for  those  who 
cannot  prepare  their  own 

solutions  or  who  have  only  a  small  amount  of  spraying  to  do, 
stock-prepared  solutions  will  answer  the  purpose. 

When  to  apply  the  spray.  The  first  spraying  is  done  when  the 
leaves  have  dropped  in  the  fall,  and  before  foliage  appears  in  the 
spring.  The  material  used  may  be  homemade  lime-sulphur  wash, 
commercial  lime-sulphur  solution,  miscible  oils,  whale-oil  soap,  or 
nicotine  solution,  properly  diluted  to  winter  strength.  This  dormant 


Fig.  1 10.    First  application 

When  the  buds  are  developed  like  these  it  is  time 

for  the   first    spraying,   to  prevent   scab.     (Cornell 

University) 


244 


THE  APPLE 


spraying  is  intended  to  destroy  scale,  insects,  and  the  winter  spores 
of  fungus  and  lichens.    Trunks  of  trees  should  be  sprayed  as  well 

as  branches. 

The  time  for  the 
second  spraying  is 
when  buds  show  pink. 
For  this,  full-strength 
Bordeaux  mixture  with 
2  pounds  of  arsenate 
of  lead  added  to  each 
50  gallons  of  the  spray 
material  should  be 
used.  This  spraying 
will  destroy  apple  scale, 
fungus,  bud  moth,  can- 
kerworms,  and  case- 
bearers. 

Just  as  soon  as  the 
blossoms   have   disap- 
peared and  before  the 
should   be   given.    The 


Fig.  in.    Second  application 

The  right  time  for  the  second  spraying,  in  order  to  control 
the  scab.    (Cornell  University) 


calyxes  have  closed,  the 
commercial  lime-sulphur 
solution,  properly  diluted 
to  summer  strength  with 
2.\  pounds  of  arsenate  of 
lead  added  to  every  50 
gallons  of  the  spray,  is 
recommended.  This  early 
summer  spraying  is  very 
important,  because  if  the 
codling  moth  is  to  be  de- 
stroyed, the  poison  must 
be  forced  into  the  calyx 
cups  before  they  close. 
This  spraying  will  also 
destroy  scab,  blight,  etc. 
The  fourth  spraying 
should  be  like  the  second, 


third 


sprayin< 


FlG.  112.    Third  application 

Ready  for  the  third  spraying  for  scab.   (Cornell 
University) 


SPRAYING  245 

only  the  quantity  of  arsenate  of  lead  should  be  reduced  to  2 
pounds  for  every   50  gallons  of  spray. 

The  fifth  spraying,  which  is  like  the  third,  is  a  preventive  against 
the  various  fungous  encroachments,  and  also  destroys  the  larvae  of 
the  San  Jose  scale  and  other  scale  insects. 

The  sixth  spraying  should  be  made  between  the  first  and  the 
fifteenth  of  August  with  the  full-strength  Bordeaux  mixture  and 
2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  added  to  every  50  gallons  of  the 
spray  material.  This  application  will  control  bitter  rot,  apple  blotch, 
and  also  the  lesser  apple  worms,  or  side  worms,  as  they  are  com- 
monly called. 

Spraying  schedule  for  apples  recommended  by  the  College  of 
Agriculture,  Cornell  University.  Dormant  spray.  Lime-sulphur 
(32  degrees  Baume)  diluted  1  to  8  for  the  San  Jose  scale,  oyster- 
shell  scale,  and  blister  mite  ;  for  bud  moth  add  2  pounds  arsenate 
of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  mixture.  Apply  when  the  leaf  buds  begin 
to  show  green. 

Summer  sprays.  I.  Lime-sulphur  (32  degrees  Baume)  diluted 
1  to  40  for  apple  scab  ;  add  arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds  to  50  gal- 
lons, for  bud  moth  and  case-bearers.  Apply  when  the  blossom 
buds  begin  to  show  pink. 

2.  Lime-sulphur  (32  degrees  Baume)  diluted  1  to  40  for  apple 
scab  ;  add  arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds  to  50  gallons,  for  the  codling 
moth.  Apply  when  the  last  of  the  petals  are  falling.  This  is  the 
most  important  spray  for  the  control  of  the  codling  moth  and 
should  be  thoroughly  applied. 

3.  Lime-sulphur  (32  degrees  Baume)  diluted  1  to  40  for  apple 
scab;  add  arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds  to  50  gallons,  for  the  codling 
moth.    Apply  three  weeks  after  the  petals  fall. 

Note.  Aphis,  which  may  be  detected  by  the  curling  of  the  leaves,  should 
be  sprayed  as  soon  they  appear  with  a  nicotine  solution  properly  diluted  for 
foliage  spraying.  For  woolly  aphis,  besides  spraying  the  entire  tree  with  a  nico- 
tine solution,  remove  the  soil  for  a  depth  of  3  inches  and  a  radius  of  3  feet 
around  the  base  of  the  tree.  Saturate  well  with  the  nicotine  solution  twice  as 
strong  as  used  for  summer  spraying,  and  then  replace  the  soil. 

Winter  strength  of  commercial  lime-sulphur  is  a  dilution  of  1  part  solution 
to  10  parts  water. 

Full-strength  Bordeaux  is  the  3-3-50  formula.  The  arsenate  of  lead 
recommended  should  contain   1 5  per  cent  arsenious  oxide. 


246  THE  APPLE 

4.  Lime-sulphur  (32  degrees  Baume)  diluted  1  to  40  for  apple 
scab;  add  arsenate  of  lead,  2  pounds  to  50  gallons,  for  the  second 
brood  of  the  codling  moth.    Apply  the  last  week  in  July. 

How  to  apply  the  spray.  To  do  effective  work  in  orchard 
spraying  requires  constant  care  and  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the 
operator  and  also  a  certain  amount  of  practice  to  secure  the  best 
results.  Thoroughness  is  essential,  but  by  thoroughness  is  not 
meant  drenching  the  tree.  The  spray  should  be  delivered  with  a 
constant,  strong  pressure,  issuing  from  the  nozzle  in  a  fine  mist, 
the  finer  the  better.  After  a  little  experience  the  operator  will 
find  that  if  the  right  type  of  nozzle  is  used,  and  if  the  extension 
rod  carrying  the  nozzle  is  properly  adjusted  and  kept  at  the  right 
distance  from  the  leaves,  he  can  cover  the  tree  thoroughly  with  a 
fine,  mistlike  coating,  and  there  will  be  no  tendency  for  the  mix- 
ture to  form  large  drops  on  the  leaves  or  to  drip  from  the  edges. 
While  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  dripping,  the  foliage  and  limbs 
on  all  parts  of  the  tree  must  be  reached.  It  is  impossible  to  do 
thorough  spraying  on  trees  which  have  not  been  properly  pruned 
or  on  trees  whose  tops  are  filled  with  water  sprouts  and  inter- 
locking branches. 

Successful  spraying  depends  on  many  factors,  but  chiefly  on  care 
and  thoroughness.  Of  the  many  precautions  which  might  be  given 
the  orchardist  we  shall  mention  only  a  few  of  the  most  essential. 

1 .  It  is  vitally  essential  to  success  that  every  detail  of  the  work 
be  carefully  and  thoroughly  done.  The  spray  must  be  directed 
into  each  tree  until  every  twig  and  leaf  is  covered  with  the 
glistening  fluid,  and  every  bud  and  crevice  filled  to  overflowing. 

2.  To  be  successful,  spraying  must  be  done  in  season.  It  is 
easy  to  neglect  this  work,  especially  if  the  weather  is  rainy  or 
windy,  until  the  sepals  are  closed  and  the  little  worms  are  safely 
established  within  the  apple.  It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the 
importance  of  this  point.  During  the  critical  period  following  the 
fall  of  the  petals  spraying  must  not  wait  for  high  winds  to  subside 
nor  for  rains  to  cease. 

3.  A  sufficient  number  of  sprayings  must  be  given.  It  is  not  safe 
to  risk  less  than  three  applications,  and  four  or  five  are  better.  To 
control  the  second  brood  of  the  codling  moth,  which  is  particularly 
destructive,  sometimes  two  sprayings  are  necessary. 


SPRAYING 


247 


4.  Do  not  try  to  save  expense  by  scanty  spraying.  This  may 
prove  to  be  very  shortsighted  economy. 

5.  A  high  pressure  maintained  constantly  is  essential  to  the  best 
results.  It  must  be  sufficient  to  drive  the  spray  well  into  the  inte- 
rior of  the  trees.  In  the  application  just  after  the  blossoms  fall  — 
the  most  important  in  controlling  the  codling  moth  —  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  pressure  be  sufficient  to  drive  the  spray  through  the 
interfering  stamens  and  down 
into  the  calyx  cup. 

6.  The  poison  must  not  be 
adulterated,  and  must  be  used 
in  sufficient  quantity.  Paris 
green  is  often  adulterated  with 
some  other  material,  and  should 
be  tested  by  dissolving  a  small 
quantity  in  ammonia,  in  which 
it  is  entirely  soluble.  The 
failure  of  any  part  of  the  solid 
to  dissolve  within  a  few  minutes 
indicates  adulteration. 

7.  The  lime  should  not  be 
air-slaked.  Fresh  stone  lime 
that  has  not  been  exposed  to 
air  or  moisture  should  be  used. 
The  work  of  the  lime  is  to 
take  up  the  free  copper  in  Bor- 
deaux mixture  and  the  free  ar- 
senic in  the  arsenious  poisons. 
If  the  lime  is  weak  it  fails  to 

perform  this  function,  and  the  caustic  copper  or  other  poison  will 
seriously  injure  the  leaves  and  fruit. 

8.  The  spray  material  should  be  stirred  well  while  being  applied. 
It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  a  good  agitator  be  kept  going 
constantly.  This  will  make  the  mixture  of  the  same  strength  through- 
out, avoiding  the  danger  of  a  weak  solution  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
tank  and  a  strong  one,  dangerous  to  foliage,  in  the  bottom. 

9.  The  solids  must  be  dissolved  separately.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  case  of  Bordeaux  mixture.    When  the  copper  sulphate 


Fig.  1 13.  A  small  compressed-air  sprayer 

Practical  for  the  home  gardener  or  for  very 
young  trees 


248 


THE  APPLE 


and  the  stone  lime  are  dissolved  in  separate  vessels  and  then 
mixed,  they  will  remain  in  suspension  much  longer  than  when 
dissolved  together. 

10.  The  thorough  straining  of  the  material  as  it  is  poured  into 
the  spray  tank  is  essential.  This  will  prevent  much  trouble  with 
clogged  nozzles. 

1 1 .  Care  must  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  a  nozzle.  Defective 
nozzles  throw  too  coarse  a  spray.  A  fine  spray  is  best,  but  it  must 
be  ejected  with  force. 

Careful  spraying  is  necessary  when  the  winds  are  high.  Work 
must  often  be  done  while  a  strong  wind  is  blowing,  in  which  case 
the  trees  should  be  sprayed  entirely  from  the  windward  side.  The 
wind  will  assist  in  driving  the  liquid  through  the  trees. 

The  advice  usually  given  is  to  spray  against  the  wind.  However, 
it  is  much  easier  to  say  this  than  actually  to  perform  the  work.  No 
available  figures  on  this  point  were  at  hand  until  R.  \V.  Westlake, 
New  York,  made  some  careful  experiments  along  this  line.  The 
results  are  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


Tree 

Age  or  Size 

Time  in  Minutes  and  Secoj    >■ 

With  Wind 

Against  Wind 

A  nnlp 

40  to  50  years 

I.40 

2.25 

Impossible, 
no  time 

2.00 

'•5° 
Av.   1.58 

14  years 

.56 
43 

1. 10 

•45 

.58 

.40 
1.08 

I.30 

Av.     -53 

1. 10 

1  1  years 

■50 
1.06 

47 
1.05 

£43 
Av.   1. 14 

I_42 

113 

Peach     

2  years 

.1 1 

.10 

•15 
.16 

■15 

.12 

•J3 

.16 

Av.     .13$ 

■*3i 

SPRAYING 


249 


In  the  first  two  cases  two  men  were  required  to  spray  each  tree, 
in  the  last  three  only  one  man  was  needed.  A  constant  pressure 
of  175  pounds  was  used  in  each  case. 

Since  the  amount  of  spray  material  that  passes  through  a  nozzle 
under  a  certain  pressure  is  almost  constant,  the  shorter  the  time 
taken  to  spray  a  tree  thoroughly,  the  less  will  be  the  material  used 
and  consequently  the  less  will  be  the  expense  of  spraying.  There- 
fore, I  think  these  figures  will  prove  to  others  what  they  proved 


Fig.  114.    At  work  in  the  orchard 
Spraying  apple  trees  with  Bowker's  insecticide  and  fungicides 


to  me  —  that  to  save  time  and  material  it  is  best  to  spray  all  small 
trees  against  the  wind,  but  large  or  tall  trees  with  the  wind. 

Spraying  machinery,  tools,  etc.  When  there  are  500  or  more 
trees  a  power  outfit  is  much  better  than  a  barrel  pump,  and  will 
be  a  paying  proposition.  The  spraying  can  be  done  in  this  way 
more  cheaply,  easily,  and  thoroughly,  as  the  pressure  is  higher  and 
more  even,  the  agitation  better,  and  less  time  and  fewer  men  are 
required  for  the  same  amount  of  work. 

On  smaller  orchards  the  barrel  pump  is  perhaps  more  suit- 
able, because  less  expensive.    In  many  sections  small  growers  can 


250  THE  APPLE 

combine  to  their  advantage  in  purchasing  a  power  sprayer  and 
the  other  necessary  spraying  materials. 

Important  points  about  spray  pumps.  The  size  and  type  of  spray 
pump  selected  will  depend  on  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done.  There 
are  so  many  special  styles  of  pumps  on  the  market  that  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  find  one  well  adapted  to  almost  every  type  of  spray  work. 

Construction.  The  construction  of  the  pump  is  important.  The 
most  satisfactory  styles  of  bucket,  knapsack,  and  barrel  outfits  have 
the  pumping  cylinder  submerged  in  the  spray  liquid.  This  renders 
close  packing  unnecessary,  which  lessens  the  friction  on  the  pump- 
ing cylinder  and  makes  the  work  much  lighter.  This  style  of  pump 
usually  has  a  large  air  chamber,  which  is  also  set  within  the  spray 
vessel.  The  air  chambers  which  are  mounted  on  top  of  the  spray 
barrels  are  usually  made  of  iron,  and  are  therefore  heavy  and  in 
the  way,  thus  making  the  outfit  much  more  cumbersome  than  those 
in  which  the  air  chamber  is  submerged. 

To  be  most  durable  the  working  parts  of  a  pump  and  all  parts 
that  are  submerged  or  come  in  contact  with  the  liquid  should  be 
made  of  brass  or  bronze.  The  nozzles,  including  caps,  should  also 
be  made  of  brass,  and  the  extension  rods  should  be  lined  with  either 
copper  or  brass  pipe.  Clear  water  should  be  run  through  the  pump 
after  each  day's  spraying,  especially  if  lime-sulphur  is  used. 

The  pump  should  have  sufficient  capacity  to  do  the  required 
amount  of  work  with  ease.  To  produce  a  good  spray,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  high  pressure,  and  here  lies  the  secret  of  the  value 
of  the  modern  power  sprayers. 

Agitation.  One  of  the  most  important  points  in  a  spray  outfit 
is  the  means  used  for  agitating  the  liquid.  Good  agitation  may  in- 
crease the  effectiveness  of  the  spray  from  20  to  50  per  cent.  The 
best  barrel  and  power  outfits  secure  this  by  a  direct  attachment  to 
the  pump.  A  stream  of  spray  liquid  returning  into  the  tank  does 
not  usually  give  good  agitation.  Some  form  of  paddle  agitation, 
either  whirling  or  dashing,  is  preferable. 

Straining.  The  spray  machine  should  be  equipped  with  a  good 
strainer,  such  as  the  Stewart  strainer,  in  which  the  liquid  passes 
upward  through  the  screen.  Other  types  of  sloping  screen  are 
good.  The  screen,  no  matter  how  made,  should  be  of  heavy  brass 
cloth  and  have  at  least  14  wires  to  the  inch.    Wire  cloth  having 


SPRAYING 


251 


15.    A  good  type 
of  nozzle 


more  than  24  meshes  to  the  inch  is  not  strong  enough  to  with- 
stand rough  usage,  and  the  fine  mesh  fills  up  with  sediment  and 
is  hard  to  clean.  A  strainer  of  some  kind  is  usually  placed  on  the 
suction  pipe,  or  suction  hose,  but  some  machines  are  equipped 
with  a  metal  box  or  well,  attached  permanently  to  the  bottom  of 
the  supply  tank,  in  which  a  simple,  easily 
cleaned  strainer  may  be  inclosed,  thus  per- 
mitting the  tank  to  be  drained  completely. 
These  wells  are  furnished  with  only  a  few 
makes  of  machines. 

Hose.  Suction  hose  that  is  at  least  1  inch 
in  diameter  should  be  used  with  large  spray 
outfits.  Plenty  of  good  hose,  piping,  cut-offs, 
hose  connections  and  bands,  rod  cut-offs,  and 
other  necessary  accessories  should  be  at  hand.  The  high  pressures 
used  in  spraying  with  modern  power  spraying-machines  make 
the  use  of  strong,  heavy-walled  hose  imperative.  Half-inch  high- 
pressure  hose  of  5-,  6-,  or  7-ply  construction  is  generally  bought  for 
this  purpose.  Except  where  oil  sprays  are  used,  the  heavier  grades 
usually  last  enough  longer  to  warrant  their  purchase.  The  ^-inch 
hose,  having  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  200  pounds'  pressure, 
is  not  practical,  because  it  is  cumbersome  and  too  heavy  for  the 
operator  to  drag  around.  The  f-inch  high- 
pressure  hose  costs  almost  as  much  as  the 
.',-inch  hose  of  similar  quality,  yet  does  not 
have  sufficient  capacity  to  supply  a  cluster 
of  large  nozzles  without  greatly  reducing  the 
pressure  of  each.  The  hose  connections  for 
this  size  of  hose  have  much  smaller  openings 
than  the  \  -inch  size,  which  partially  accounts 
for  the  reduction  of  pressure  at  the  nozzle 
cap.  The  lead  of  hose  to  the  operator  on  the 

ground  should  be  at  least  35  feet,  but  the  lead  to  the  tower  can 
be  as  short  as  12  feet  without  hampering  the  operator  in  hand- 
ling the  spray  rod.  Barrel  pumps  and  large  hand  pumps  will  sel- 
dom supply  more  than  one  lead  of  hose  at  a  satisfactory  working 
pressure,  but  two  nozzles  can  be  used  on  the  spray  rod  when  one 
nozzle  does  not  utilize  more  than  half  the  capacity  of  the  pump. 


Fig.  116.    Angle  nozzle, 
a  convenient  necessity 


25: 


THE  APPLE 


Nozzles.    The  pump  should  be  fitted  with  the  kind  of  nozzle 
best  adapted  to  the  work  to  be  done.   Generally  speaking,  the  disk 

type,  which  breaks  the  liquid 
into  a  very  line  mist  and  pro- 
duces a  short-distance,  cone- 
shaped  spray,  gives  the  best 
results. 

Spray  nozzles  may  be  di- 
vided, according  to  the  shape 
of  the  spray,  into  hollow-cone, 
solid-cone,  solid-stream,  and 
flat  or  fan-shaped  nozzles  ;  but 
for  practical  purposes  it  is  bet- 
ter to  classify  them  according 
to  their  construction  as  disk, 
Vermorel,  modified  Yermorel, 


Fig.  117.  Type  of  Mistry  nozzle  (straight) 


self-cleaner,  cap,  Bordeaux,  cyclone,  and  solid-stream  nozzles. 

Different  types  of  nozzles  are  suited  to  different  kinds  of  work, 
and  as  their  efficiency  sometimes  depends  upon  the  pressure,  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  select  a 
nozzle  which  will  be  unsuited 
to  the  machine  with  which  it 
is  to  be  used.  Some  nozzles 
are  of  very  large  capacity  and 
should  not  be  used  with  pumps 
whose  capacity  per  minute  is 
less  than  that  of  the  nozzle. 
The  disk  nozzles,  as  compared 
with  most  of  the  Vermorel 
or  self-cleaner  types,  have  a 
greater  capacity,  are  more  com- 
pact, lighter  in  weight,  less 
liable  to  clog,  and  do  not 
have  any  projecting  parts  to 
catch  onto  limbs  and  make 
trouble.  Although  disk  nozzles  have  been  on  the  market  for  only 
a  few  years,  they  are  rapidly  superseding  the  older  and  more 
common  types. 


Fig.  118.    Type  of  Mistry  nozzle  (angle) 


SPRAYING 


253 


Fig.  119.    Type  of  nozzle 


Most  of  the  Vermorel  and  self-cleaner   nozzles  are  of  small 
capacity,  largely  because  the  small  orifices  through  which  the  liquid 

must  pass,  and  the  abrupt 
changes  of  direction  which  it 
must  make,  reduce  its  speed 
and  nullify  the  effects  which 
would  otherwise  be  obtained. 
The  Bordeaux  type  of  noz- 
zles —  strongly  advocated  by 
many  Western  orchardists  — 
usually  make  a  flat,  fan-shaped 
spray  that  is  coarse  and  much 
heavier  in  the  center  of  the  fan 
than  at  the  edges.  These  are 
also  of  large  capacity,  and  can 
be  adjusted  to  throw  a  solid 
stream  of  liquid. 

Cap  nozzles  of  small  capac- 
ity, which  are  often  miniature  types  of  disk  nozzles,  are  suitable  for 
bucket  pumps  and  small  hand  sprayers.  Those  of  large  capacity 
are  preferable  to  the  Ver- 
morels.  Solid-stream  nozzles 
are  best  suited  for  spraying 
tall  trees,  and  because  of  their 
extremely  large  capacity  can- 
not be  used  with  any  of  the 
smaller  power  machines.  This 
observation  applies  especially 
to  the  Worthley  nozzle,  which 
has  been  developed  for  use  in 
spraying  the  gypsy  and  brown- 
tail  moths  in  Massachusetts. 

Spray  rods.  Extension  rods 
are  necessary  for  spraying 
large  trees,  since  most  of  the 
modern    nozzles     produce    a 

fine-mist  spray,  which  has  very  little  carrying  power.    For  small 
orchards  a  section  of  |-inch  iron  pipe  serves  the  purpose  very 


Type  of  nozzle 


254  THE  APPLE 

well  if  the  rods  needed  are  not  over  6  or  8  feet  in  length.  Longer 
lengths  of  }-inch  iron  pipe  are  hard  to  handle  on  account  of  their 
weight,  and  often  break  off  in  the  threads.  Rods  of  brass  pipe  are 
too  flexible  when  made  of  light  tubing,  and  too  heavy  when  made 
of  strong  tubing  large  enough  in  diameter  to  obviate  flexibility. 

Extension  rods  made  of  bamboo  and  lined  with  brass  or  alumi- 
num pipe  are  light,  strong,  and  large  enough  in  diameter  to  be 
handled  conveniently  without  unduly  tiring  the  operator.  The  base 
and  top  should  be  constructed  like  rod  ends,  for  these  thimbles 
prevent  the  accidental  breaking  of  the  rod  at  the  juncture  of  the 
fitting  and  the  lining  pipe.  Aluminum-lined  rods  of  this  type  are 
practically  as  strong  as  the  brass-lined  ones,  and  are  much  lighter 
in  weight.  Bamboo  rods  io  feet  long  are  usually  the  most  practi- 
cal, although  the  1 2-foot  size  is  not  too  heavy  nor  too  long  for 
tall  trees.  The  plain  thimbled  bamboo  rods  with  wired  ends  are 
seldom  as  durable  as  the  other  kinds  mentioned,  for  the  bamboo 
is  liable  to  split,  and  the  rod  ends  are  more  readily  broken  off ;  the 
lining  pipe  and  thimbles  get  loose  and  turn  around  in  the  bamboo 
support,  and  there  is  no  satisfactory  way  to  remedy  the  defect. 

Types  of  sprayers.  Bucket  pumps.  Pumps  of  this  class  are  of 
small  capacity,  but  give  a  good  pressure  when  properly  controlled, 
and  are  very  useful  in  greenhouses,  conservatories,  and  small 
gardens.   They  cost  from  $1.75  to  $5.00. 

Knapsack  pumps.  These  pumps,  which  have  about  the  same 
capacity  as  the  bucket  type,  are  mounted  in  galvanized-iron  or 
copper  tanks.  One  of  the  best  of  these  has  a  compressed-air 
equipment.  They  are  useful  in  small  vegetable  and  fruit  gardens. 
The  chief  objections  to  them  are  the  cost,  — from  $5.00  to  $12.00, 
—  which  is  relatively  great  when  the  capacity  is  considered,  and 
the  tendency  of  the  tanks  to  give  way,  most  of  the  material  used 
in  their  construction  being  too  thin  to  stand  rough  usage. 

Neither  the  bucket  nor  the  knapsack  pumps  are  adapted  for 
commercial  operations. 

Hand,  or  barrel,  pumps.  This  designation  includes  all  pumps 
of  moderate  capacity  that  are  mounted  on  tanks  having  a  capacity 
of  from  50  to  300  gallons  and  operated  by  hand  power.  The 
most  common  is  the  brass  pump  mounted  on  the  50-gallon  spray 
barrel,  which  has  a  sufficient  capacity  to  carry  two  lines  of  hose. 


SPRAYING  255 

Barrel  pumps  are  made  in  various  sizes,  and  will  carry  from  one 
to  four  lines  of  hose.  For  small  and  moderate-sized  orchards,  not 
over  10  acres,  and  for  general  spray  work  on  the  farm  the  barrel 
outfit  is  satisfactory.  It  is  also  very  satisfactory  for  spraying  pota- 
toes, if  mounted  on  a  two-wheel  cart  and  an  attachment  added 
behind  so  that  four  rows  at  a  time  may  be  sprayed  by  one  man, 
who  both  drives  and  pumps.  A  good  barrel  outfit,  including  pump, 
barrel,  hose,  rod,  and  nozzles,  can  be  bought  for  from  $15.00 
to  $25.00. 

One  of  the  most  desirable  spray  outfits  for  moderate  commercial 
operations  —  for  instance,  an  orchard  of  from  10  to  20  acres  — 
is  the  large-sized  hand  pump.  Most  of  these  are  horizontal,  two- 
cylinder  and  double  acting,  giving  nearly  twice  as  much  pressure 
from  the  labor  of  one  man  as  a  small  hand  pump.  They  should 
be  fitted  with  a  pressure  gauge  and  mounted  on  a  tank  having  a 
capacity  of  from  150  to  250  gallons  which  is  supplied  with  an  agi- 
tator. Either  one  or  two  men  can  pump,  and  the  pressure  may  be 
easily  kept  at  1 50  pounds.  This  style  of  outfit  can  be  bought  for 
from  $40.00  to  $64.00,  exclusive  of  the  running  gear,  and  is  recom- 
mended for  those  who  have  not  sufficient  spraying  to  justify  the 
purchase  of  a  power  outfit. 

Geared  sprayers.  There  are  a  large  number  of  special  outfits, 
the  power  for  which  is  supplied  by  a  geared  drivewheel.  These 
outfits  are  especially  useful  in  spraying  vineyards  and  low-growing 
crops  like  potatoes,  bush  fruits,  strawberries,  and  even  small  trees. 
They  usually  carry  a  set  of  nozzles  so  arranged  as  to  dispense  with 
the  use  of  a  man  at  the  spray  lance.  It  is  not  wise  to  attempt  to 
spray  trees  over  four  or  five  years  old  with  this  type  of  sprayer, 
since  the  pressure  will  not  be  maintained  long  enough  to  spray 
thoroughly.  The  grower  should  exercise  caution  in  the  selection 
of  a  pump  of  this  type,  since  some  of  these  outfits  are  of  too  flimsy 
construction  to  be  durable.  The  usual  cost  of  a  geared  sprayer  is 
from  $150.00  to  $250.00. 

Gasoline  sprayers.  The  most  satisfactory  outfit  for  extensive 
spraying  is  the  modern  gasoline-power  sprayer.  The  high  and  uni- 
form pressure  at  which  these  pumps  may  be  held  (150  pounds 
or  more  to  the  square  inch)  gives  a  uniformly  strong  delivery  and 
enables  the  workmen  to  spray  rapidly  and  effectively.    One  of  the 


256 


THE  APPLE 


best  features  of  these  pumps  is  that  they  can  be  worked  continuously 
ten  hours  a  day  and  thus  cause  little  waste  of  time. 

Many  of  the  older  types  of  gasoline  outfits  were  clumsy  and 
easily  put  out  of  order.  The  more  recent  types  are  much  lighter, 
simpler,  and  more  reliable,  no  expert  mechanical  skill  being  re- 
quired to  run  them  —  only  care.  They  are,  however,  more  reliable 
on  fairly  level  ground  than  on  steep  or  rough  land.  Two  or  three 
leads  of  hose  are  needed  with  a  gasoline  outfit,  and  if  the  trees  are 
old,  one  man  should  stand  in  a  tower  built  over  the  tank.    Both 

air-cooled     and     water-cooled 
engines  are  satisfactory. 

The  compressed-air  sprayer. 
For  some  of  the  roughest 
orchard  lands  compressed-air 
outfits  are  preferable.  These 
pumps  and  others  of  similar 
type  have  all  the  advantages 
of  the  gasoline  sprayer  and 
are  free  from  some  of  the 
most  annoying  disadvantages. 
Some  orchardists  now  have 
outfits  for  filling  compressed- 
air  tanks  at  home. 

One  air  compressor,  costing 
from  $75.00  to  $i  50.00,  will 
fill  a  number  of  sets  of  tanks, 
so  that  although  the  first  cost  is  large,  the  subsequent  expense  for 
increasing  the  outfits  is  small.  The  compressor  may  be  driven  by 
water  power,  but  if  this  is  not  available,  then  by  a  gasoline  engine 
of  from  6-  to  12-horse  power.  As  the  engine  is  stationary,  it  is 
not  so  likely  to  get  out  of  order  as  one  mounted  on  a  spray  wagon. 
A  storage  tank  for  compressed  air  is  used  by  some.  The  spray 
wagon  or  cart  contains  two  galvanized-iron  tanks,  tested  to  200 
pounds'  pressure  and  holding  from  50  to  100  gallons,  one  for  the 
liquid  and  the  other  for  compressed  air.  From  this,  spraying  pres- 
sure of  from  80  to  140  pounds  can  be  secured.  As  already  pointed 
out,  compressed-air  outfits  are  especially  adapted  for  very  steep 
and  rough  land. 


r*^ 


Fig.  121.   Putting  on  the  finishing  touches 
—  spraying  begins  to-morrow 

A  modern,  up-to-date,  practical  equipment  for 
spraying 


commercial  apple  orchard 


SPRAYING 


257 


Results  of  spraying.  The  following  tables  are  based  on  figures 
obtained  by  Cornell  University,  New  York,  as  to  the  yield  and 
income  of  both  sprayed  and  unsprayed  apple  orchards.  These 
figures  are  the  result  of  apple-orchard  surveys  in  the  state. 

Two  computations  were  made  on  how  spraying  affects  yields 
and  incomes.  One  included  all  orchards  within  the  survey,  and  the 
other  only  well-cared-for  orchards.  By  studying  the  first  table,  it 
is  evident  that  the  greatest  yield  follows  from  the  three  sprayings, 
although  there  is  a  small  gain  in  the  average  income  in  favor  of 
four  sprayings.  It  is  very  instructive  to  note  the  rising  scale  of 
average  incomes,  beginning  at  the  unsprayed  group  and  passing 
from  that  up  to  the  group  sprayed  four  times.  In  both  tables  this 
scale  holds  sood. 


SPRAYED 

AND   UNSPRAYED  ORCHARDS 

How   SPRAYED 

Number  of 
(  Orchards 

Nl    MBER   OF 

Acres 

Average 
Yield 

Average 

[ncomb 

Unsprayed 

Sprayed  once 

Sprayed  twice 

Sprayed  three  times      .     . 

Sprayed  four  times    .     .     . 

99 

74 
162 
63 

5 

1071 

737 
177S 

76 

261 
364 
509 
577 
39° 

*45 
93 

IOI 

171 
183 

SPRAYING,  YIELD,  AND  INCOME  PER  ACRE  (ORCHARDS 
ALL  WELL  CARED  EOR) 


Ylll  DS 

Incomes 

How   SPRAYED 

Number  of 

Number  of 

Average 

Number  of 

Number  of 

Average 

Orchards 

Acres 

Yield 

Orchards 

Acres 

Income 

Unsprayed      .     .     . 

57 

720 

266 

63 

8lO 

*95 

Sprayed  once      .     . 

40 

368 

353 

4S 

488 

146 

Sprayed  twice     .     . 

Si 

753 

422 

S2 

758 

i47 

Spraved  three  times 

40 

4-5 

440 

40 

425 

201 

Sprayed  four  times . 

3 

43 

285 

3 

43 

226 

It  is  interesting  as  well  as  instructive  to  compare  the  average 
income  from  the  unsprayed  crop  with  that  from  crops  sprayed 
four  times. 

Two  additional  tables  are  given  on  page  258  showing  that  the 
orchards  that  were  sprayed  gave  a  much  larger  income  and  yield  per 
acre  than  those  not  sprayed ;  these  tables  are  worthy  of  consideration. 


258 


THE  APPLE 


SPRAYING,  YIELD,  AND  INCOME  PER  ACRE,  ORLEANS 
COUNTY,  NEW   YORK,  1904 


\ 

IBLDS 

Incomes 

Crop 
Barreled 

How   SPRAYED 

Number  of 

Number 

Average 

Number  of 

Number 

Average 

Orchards 

of  Acres 

Yield 

Orchards 

of  Acres 

Income 

Unsprayed  .... 

lOO 

9I7l 

-45 

% 
7i 

94 

861I 

$92 

Sprayed  once  .     .     . 

49 

504 

307 

7' 

46 

468 

116 

Sprayed  twice .     .     . 

90 

92I2 

343 

75 

84 

8643 

127 

Sprayed  three  times 

40 

426 

322 

S3 

37 

406 

139 

Sprayed  four  times   . 

6 

43 

569 

77 

5 

43 

21 1 

SPRAYING,  YIELD,  AND  INCOME  PER  ACRE.  ORLEANS 
COUNTY,  1904  (ORCHARDS  ALL  WELL  CARED  FOR) 


Y 

iei-ds 

Crop 
Barreled 

Incomes 

HOW   SPRAYED 

Number  of 

Number 

Average 

Number  of 

Number 

Average 

Orchards 

of  Acres 

Yield 

Orchards 

of  Acres 

Income 

Unsprayed  .... 

43 

38l 

328 

66 

54 

4491 

$103 

Sprayed  once  .     .     . 

35 

352 

346 

74 

3° 

3l6 

139 

Sprayed  twice .     .     . 

7° 

701 

374 

78 

64 

644 

M3 

Sprayed  three  times 

-7 

-47* 

414 

87 

25 

^ 

1 84 

Sprayed  four  times   . 

6 

43 

569 

77 

6 

43 

211 

The  difference  in  income  is  clue  to  larger  yields  and  to  a  larger 
proportion  of  fruit  suitable  to  barrel,  which  result  in  higher  prices. 
These  conditions  in  turn  depend  on  better  orchard  management 
and  careful  attention  to  spraying.  Allowing  for  the  additional  ex- 
penditure involved  in  the  purchase  of  a  spraying  outfit,  —  barrels, 
spray  materials,  labor,  etc.,  —  there  is  still  a  good  profit  in  the  re- 
turns from  sprayed  trees  as  compared  with  those  from  unsprayed 
trees.  It  is  therefore  clear  that  the  extra  expense  and  work  are 
justified  on  economic  grounds  as  well  as  from  the  standpoint  of 
satisfaction  in  producing  a  large  percentage  of  high-grade  fruit. 

Cost  of  spraying.  It  will  cost  from  10  to  30  cents  per  tree  to 
spray,  varying  with  the  number  of  applications,  the  size  of  the  tree, 
the  kind  of  machine  used,  the  area  of  the  orchard,  the  price  and 
character  of  the  materials  used,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  labor.    In 


SPRAYING  259 

Nebraska,  after  a  long  series  of  careful  tests  of  prices  and  effec- 
tiveness of  the  various  methods  and  materials,  it  was  found  that 
trees  could  be  thoroughly  sprayed  for  from  18  to  25  cents  each 
during  the  season.  The  cost  of  1000  gallons  of  arsenate  of  lead 
and  Bordeaux  mixture,  which  is  sufficient  to  spray  500  trees  quite 
thoroughly  once,  will  approximate  $6.60.  One  can  spray  a  tree 
four  times  quite  satisfactorily  with  8  or  10  gallons  of  spray  material. 

The  cost  of  labor  will  vary  from  3  to  5  cents  per  tree  when  a 
large  power  outfit  is  used,  and  from  1 5  to  2  5  cents  per  tree  when  a 
small  barrel  pump  throws  the  liquid. 

The  following  is  a  reasonable  estimate  of  the  cost  of  spraying 
1 00  trees  : 

Cost  of  material $6.60 

Cost  of  labor 6.60 

Interest  and  wear  on  machinery 5.20 

$  1 840 

This  means  a  trifle  over  18  cents  per  tree.  The  returns  are 
practically  certain  to  justify  this  expenditure  many  times  over. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

MISCELLANEOUS  INJURIES 

Apple  orchards  are  subject  to  many  injuries  which  are  often 
more  fatal  to  the  trees  than  are  years  of  depredations  by  insects 
and  diseases.  Most  of  these  injuries  could  be  prevented,  but 
there  are  some  of  them  which  seem  to  be  beyond  the  help  of  man. 


Fig.  122.    A  well-propped  tree 
A  heavy  load  of  apples,  causing  the  owner  to  prop  the  limbs  in  order  to  prevent  breaking 

Injury  by  wind.  One  of  the  greatest  losses  to  both  trees  and 
fruits  is  caused  by  excessive  winds.  Let  a  wild  wind  sweep  through 
an  orchard  loaded  with  large  apples  nearly  ready  to  pick,  and  per- 
haps in  ten  minutes'  time  most  of  this  fruit  will  be  strewn  on  the 
ground  and  so  injured  that  it  cannot  be  marketed  as  a  first-grade 
product.    Even  if  the  wind  is  only  strong  enough  to  cause  the  limbs 

260 


MISCELLANEOUS   INJURIES 


261 


to  blow  or  bend,  this  may  be  the  last  straw  needed  to  break  a  limb, 
and  thus  waste  years  of  growth. 

Windbreaks,  if  properly  constructed,  will  help  in  such  cases.  So 
far  as  the  load  of  fruit  is  concerned,  it  may  be  lightened  consider- 
ably by  judicious  thinning,  and  may  be  further  protected  by  proper 
supports  under  each  heavily  laden  limb.  Common  bean  poles  or 
ordinary  poles  or  boards  will  answer.  One  very  good  support  is 
made  with  a  smooth  base  upon  which  si  inches  of  the  limb  rest. 
It  is  made  on  a  swivel  and  will  adjust  itself  to  any  angle,  thereby 
equalizing  its  weight,  without  either  rubbing  or  breaking  the  bark. 
The  hanger,  or  socket,  allows 
for  a  wood  stake  to  be  inserted. 
Growers  who  have  used  this  prop 
have  been  well  satisfied  with  it. 
Its  cost  is  $10.00  per  hundred. 

Injury  by  carelessness.  Each 
orchardist  can  undoubtedly  call  to 
mind  cases  where  by  a  little  more 
care,  injury  to  the  trees  could 
have  been  prevented.  Perhaps 
the  injury  was  made  at  the  time 
of  plowing  the  orchard,  or  when 
harrowing  by  "barking"  the  tree 
with  the  end  of  the  whiffletree, 
thereby  inviting  further  injury  by 
disease.  Perhaps  it  was  in  driv- 
ing too  close  to  the  tree  that  the  old  high  hames  barked  a  limb  or 
broke  it.    In  any  such  case  the  injury  could  have  been  prevented. 

Injury  by  animals.  Cows,  sheep,  pigs,  and  other  animals  may 
cause  considerable  injury  to  trees,  either  by  consuming  the  young 
growth  or  by  destroying  the  bark  and  girdling  the  tree.  Sheep  are 
particularly  fond  of  chewing  the  tops  of  young  branches,  and  pigs 
are  sometimes  very  destructive  in  girdling  trees,  especially  when 
there  is  a  lack  of  ordinary  food. 

Some  owners  advocate  the  pasturing  of  orchards  by  these  ani- 
mals, and  certain  particular  orchard  conditions  may  warrant  such  a 
procedure,  but  unless  the  trees  can  be  protected  from  injury,  this 
would  seem  to  be  more  devastating  than  beneficial. 


\  metal  head  for  props 


Oftentimes  overloaded  branches  are  broken 
when  ordinary  tree  props  are  used.   By  plac- 
ing a  metal  head  on  each  prop,  similar  to 
that  above,  the  difficulty  will  be  obviated 


262 


THE  APPLE 


Injury  by  mice.  The  injury  by  mice  to  all  crops  during  a  year 
reaches  enormous  proportions.  At  certain  times  between  fall  and 
spring  they  seem  to  have  a  decided  liking  for  young  apple  trees, 
completely  girdling  many  and  partially  girdling  others,  thereby 
causing  unsatisfactory  growth.  Young  trees  that  have  grass  or  rub- 
bish quite  close  to  their  trunks  are  liable  to  be  attacked.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  an  apple  tree  4  or  5  inches  in  diameter  is  safe 
from  attack,  but  when  food  is  very  scarce,  even  these  may  suffer. 


Trees  loaded  with  fruit,  causing  the  branches  to  touch  the  ground  and  in  many  cases 
necessitating  props 

Several  ways  have  been  found  to  protect  trees  against  mice. 
One  is  to  use  thin  strips  of  wood  called  "wood  veneers,"  which 
may  be  easily  wrapped  around  the  tree  and  tied  with  string  or  wire. 
The  lower  ends  may  be  creosoted  to  prevent  rot  if  the  veneers  get 
pushed  into  the  ground.  An  important  point  to  remember  is  that 
the  wood  should  be  wet,  preferably  soaked  in  water,  before  being 
tied  in  place.  The  cost  of  these  veneers  is  about  a  cent  each,  often 
less.  They  should  not  be  placed  about  the  tree  until  early  autumn, 
probably  the  last  of  August  or  during  September  in  the  Northern 
states,  nor  should  they  be  allowed  to  remain  around  the  trees  later 


MISCELLANEOUS   INJURIES  263 

than  early  summer,  probably  May  or  the  first  of  June.  If  they  are 
left  on  the  trees  too  long,  such  insects  as  the  woolly  aphis  may 
take  advantage  of  their  shade  by  making  it  a  breeding  place,  or 
borer  beetles  may  lay  their  eggs  under  them.  Some  injury  also 
seems  to  be  done  if  the  trunk  is  deprived  too  long  of  sunlight. 

Tar  paper,  sheet  iron,  laths  nailed  close  together,  and  many 
other  devices  have  been  brought  forward  as  satisfactory  protectors 
against  mice,  each  probably  being  the  most  satisfactory  for  a  special 
condition.  Where  sheet  iron,  veneer,  and  other  forms  of  cylinder 
protectors  that  do  not  permit  of  easy  entrance  of  sunlight  are  used, 
some  device  should  be  arranged  to  keep  out  the  snow  and  sleet. 
A  collar  or  cap  of  red  building  paper  could  be  easily  made.  A 
piece  of  paper  the  shape  of  the  collars  worn  by  boys  a  few  years 
ago  is  just  right.  This  paper  should  be  wrapped  around  the  top  of 
the  cylinder  and  slightly  slit  at  the  top,  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
and  securely  tied  to  the  tree.  It  will  form  a  slanting  roof  over 
the  cylinder,  keeping  out  snow  and  sleet,  and  at  the  same  time 
prevent  chafing  by  keeping  the  top  of  the  cylinder  away  from 
the  tree. 

Ordinary  wire  screening  is  a  form  of  protector  that  has  met  with 
universal  approval.  The  galvanized  i-inch  mesh  screen  is  generally 
preferred.  A  piece  18  inches  long  and  12  inches  wide  is  required 
for  very  young  trees.  It  may  be  wrapped  around  the  base  of  the 
trunk,  or  may  be  bent  into  a  cylindrical  form  first  and  then  be 
slipped  quickly  into  place.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  it  at  least 
2  inches  below  the  soil  to  prevent  underground  girdling.  This  may 
be  easily  accomplished  by  excavating  slightly  about  the  base  of  the 
tree,  or  if  the  soil  is  soft,  by  pushing  the  screening  into  it.  The 
screen  may  be  held  together  at  its  edge  by  two  pieces  of  copper 
wire  or  hay  wire,  or  two  wire  nails  thrust  through  the  layers.  At 
the  top  a  piece  of  binder  twine  tied  from  one  side  of  the  screen 
around  the  tree  to  the  other  side,  from  east  to  west  and  also  from 
north  to  south,  will  hold  the  screen  away  from  the  tree.  Otherwise, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  watch  the  trees  so  that  they  will  not  be  girdled 
by  the  rubbing  of  the  screening  against  the  trunks.  If  the  screening 
is  put  on  in  this  way,  it  can  remain  during  the  summer ;  and  if 
the  galvanized  screening  is  used,  it  will  last  for  several  years  and 
is  therefore  cheaper  in  the  end. 


264  THE  APPLE 

Injury  from  rabbits.  The  injury  to  the  bark  of  the  trees  by 
rabbits  differs  from  that  done  by  the  mice.  Rabbits  work  higher 
up  on  the  tree,  commonly  starting  about  12  or  18  inches  from 
the  ground,  tearing  off  the  bark  in  strips  and  chewing  larger  bits, 
while  mice  start  at  or  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  chew  out 
small  bits. 

In  the  West  the  jackrabbit  is  the  pest,  while  in  northern  United 
States  and  Canada  the  hare  is  the  destroyer.  The  familiar  cotton- 
tail rabbit  is  common  to  the  eastern  regions. 

The  protection  against  rabbits  may  be  taller  wire  screens  or  a 
spray  or  a  paint.  Lime-sulphur  wash  may  be  used  as  the  spray, 
and  may  be  applied  in  November  at  the  time  the  orchardist  is  spray- 
ing for  the  San  Jose  scale.  If  the  trees  are  not  being  sprayed,  the 
solution  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  or  small  hand  sprayer.  The 
home  grower  with  a  few  trees  should  purchase  a  can  of  some  one 
of  the  commercial  brands  of  prepared  lime-sulphur  rather  than  go 
to  the  trouble  of  mixing  a  small  amount. 

White-lead  paint  promises  to  become  the  most  satisfactory  treat- 
ment, owing  to  its  cheapness,  permanency,  and  ease  of  application, 
as  well  as  its  power  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  borers  into  the  tree. 
In  painting,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  some  loose  soil  at  the 
base  of  the  tree.  Allow  time  for  the  bark  to  dry  out  where  the  soil 
lay  against  it.  Give  the  bark  when  dry  a  thorough  coating  with  the 
paint,  from  the  lowest  exposed  point  to  about  3  feet  or  more  from 
the  ground  level.  After  the  paint  has  dried,  replace  the  soil  about 
the  trunk  of  the  tree. 

Both  the  lime-sulphur  and  the  white  lead  have  been  found  to 
be  satisfactory  in  fighting  mice  also. 

Many  other  substances  have  been  recommended  and  in  certain 
cases  may  be  effective. 

Injury  from  deer.  In  some  states  injury  from  deer  is  com- 
mon. The  deer  trim  the  tops  of  newly  set  trees  or  the  sides  of 
older  trees,  especially  young  branches.  It  seems  that  the  does  are 
the  chief  offenders.  Certain  states  reimburse  owners  for  loss  by 
deer,  but  the  return  of  money  for  several  years'  growth  or  the 
constant  annual  deer  pruning  will  never  pay  the  orchardist.  In 
some  states  the  law  permits  the  owner  of  an  orchard  to  shoot  the 
deer  if  damage  is  being  done,  reporting  the  case  at  once  to  the 


MISCELLANEOUS   INJURIES  265 

game  wardens.  If  the  orchardist  dresses  the  deer,  the  state  will 
take  it  and  pay  him  for  the  trouble  of  dressing. 

Longer  open  seasons  offer  some  relief,  and  possibly  a  very  short 
doe  season  would  drive  these  animals  away.  Fencing — if  the  fence 
is  8  or  10  feet  high  and  of  tight-woven  wire  —  may  keep  them  out, 
although  in  most  cases  where  fences  have  been  used,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  deer  get  in  easily  but  cannot  get  out.  Deterrent 
licks  have  also  been  tried.  After  the  deer  begin  to  come  daily 
to  these  licks,  either  kerosene  is  poured  over  the  salt,  or  sulphur 
is  mixed  with  a  small  amount  of  salt.  Both  these  substances  are 
very  distasteful  to  deer  and  will  serve  to  drive  them  away  from 
the  territory. 

Perhaps  we  shall  find  that  applications  of  lime-sulphur  will  keep 
the  deer  from  eating  the  foliage,  but  the  value  of  this  preventive 
has  not  yet  been  demonstrated. 

Orchards  may  be  injured  in  other  ways  than  those  mentioned 
here,  but  these  will  serve  to  suggest  to  the  orchardist  the 
difficulties  against  which  he  must  cruard. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


PICKING 


The  picking  of  the  fruit  is  one  of  the  most  important  operations 
in  profitable  apple  production.  Most  orchardists  pick  the  fruit 
either  too  soon  or  too  late,  chiefly  too  early.     Fruit  that  is  not 

picked  soon  enough 
rots  quickly  and  loses 
its  marketable  quali- 
ties. However,  if  the 
market  is  a  local  one, 
or  if  the  apples  are 
to  be  sold  immediately 
for  consumption,  they 
may  be  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  trees 
longer  than  would  in 
other  cases  be  safe. 
By  allowing  apples  to 
remain  on  the  trees 
till  after  the  best  time 
for  picking,  one  great 
advantage  is  gained, 
and  that  is  an  increase 
in  the  color  of  the  fruit 
—  provided,  of  course, 
the  apple  has  a  color 
that  can  increase  and 
deepen.      Often    this 


Fig.  125.    Expensive  work 

Where  trees  are  too  high  the  expense  of  picking  is  ma- 
terially increased.    It  costs  money  to  move  a  heavy  long 
ladder  and  also  to  climb  up  and  down  on  it 
Moral :  Keep  the  trees  low 


heightened  color  materially  increases  the  immediate  returns  for 
the  fruit.  Some  varieties  lose  their  crisp  quality  if  allowed  to  re- 
main too  long  on  the  tree  and  become  soft  and  mushy,  in  which 
stage  many  people  do  not  like  them. 

266 


PICKING 


267 


If  apples  are  picked  too  soon,  they  not  only  lack  the  color 
that  in  many  varieties  is  essential  to  their  ready  sale  but,  since 
the  change  from  a  sour  to  a  sweeter  stage  has  not  taken  place 
to  any  marked  degree,  they  are  less  edible  than  those  which  are 
allowed  to  remain  longer  on  the  tree.  There  may  also  be  some 
decrease  in  the  size  of 
apples  picked  too  soon. 

If  apples  suffer  by  being 
picked  too  soon  or  too 
late,  just  when  ought  they 
to  be  picked  ?  The  author 
wishes  that  he  could  give 
a  helpful  answer  to  this 
question,  but  he  feels,  as 
many  other  orchardists 
have  felt,  that  a  definite 
statement  on  this  point 
cannot  easily  be  made.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that 
at  the  time  of  picking,  the 
apple  should  have  a  large 
degree  of  the  character- 
istic color  of  its  variety  and 
should  be  of  the  average 
size  of  the  variety.  It 
should  be  firm  of  flesh,  but 
should  not  have  the  firm- 
ness of  immaturity.  It 
should  not  be  mushy  or 
mellow,  nor  have  a  dull, 
over-ripe,  stale  appearance. 

How  to  pick.  Nature  has  supplied  a  small  joint  at  which  the 
stem  of  the  apple  may  be  easily  severed  from  the  twig.  This  is 
marked  by  a  collection  of  wrinkles  on  the  twig.  If  the  apple  is 
grasped  and  pulled  away  from  the  tree,  the  joint  may  break  cor- 
rectly, but  the  chances  are  that  the  stem  will  be  torn  out  of  the 
apple.  This  is  not  the  way  to  pick  apples  from  the  trees.  The 
proper  method  is  to  place  the  hand  carefully  around  the  apple  to 


Fig.  126.    At  work  harvesting 

A  good  stepladder,  a  cloth  bag,  and  an  energetic 

man  complete  the  outfit.    Harvesting  is  then  done 

quickly  and  cheaply 


26cS 


THE  APPLE 


check  its  falling  to  the  ground,  and  with  the  free  fingers  or,  better 
still,  with  the  other  hand,  sever  the  stem  from  the  twig  by  a  side 
pressure  at  the  joint.  Do  not  press  the  apple  with  the  hand. 
Apples  are  delicate  and  are  often  bruised  by  what  would  seem  to 
be  a  slight  pressure.     With  practice  the  operator  can  learn  to 

remove  the  apple  with  one 
hand  without  pressing  or 
bruising  it.  As  each  apple 
is  picked  it  should  be 
carefully  placed  in  a  recep- 
tacle. The  exact  time  of 
picking  will  depend  on  the 
variety  and  perhaps  on 
the  tree  or  on  the  part  of 
the  tree. 

Equipment  for  picking. 
In  order  to  carry  on  the 
operation  of  harvesting 
a  crop  of  apples  success- 
fully, it  is  important  that 
an  adequate  equipment  be 
supplied.  Every  picker 
should  be  given  a  recep- 
tacle to  hold  the  apples. 
Some  growers  prefer  a 
peck  basket,  others  a  half- 
bushel  basket.  Split  wood 
is  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  baskets,  which 
generally  have  round  sides, 
a  small,  flat  bottom,  and 
a  substantial  handle.  Some  orchardists  prefer  canvas  baskets,  can- 
vas bags,  and  the  like,  each  operator  being  advised  to  select  the 
picking-receptacle  that  he  can  use  best. 

When  the  trees  are  young  and  small,  most  of  the  fruit  can  be 
easily  reached  from  the  ground,  but  as  they  increase  in  age  and 
size  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  aid  in  reaching  the  fruit.  Short 
stepladders  with  four  legs,  common  in  many  households,  are  used. 


Harvesting 


Harvesting  from  a  modern  stepladder.   Using 
bag  for  the  picking-receptacle 


PICKING  269 

A  three-legged  stepladder  with  or  without  a  pointed  top  is  favored 
by  some  growers.   Common  ladders  of  various  lengths  are  also  used. 

A  practical  ladder  similar  to  the  common  ladder,  but  having  a 
flaring  base  and  coming  to  a  point  at  the  top,  is  thought  by  many 
orchardists  to  be  the  best  picking-ladder.  A  single  pole  with  rounds 
and  a  flaring  base  has  also  been  recommended.  Apparatus  to 
help  the  operator  reach  the  fruit  more  easily  are  increasing  every 
year,  but  many  individuals  are  not  using  any  of  the  newer  devices. 
Most  fruit-growers  still  cling  to  ordinary  stepladders  or  the  larger 
painters'  ladders,  with  an  occasional  modification. 

Picking-poles  are  sometimes  used,  but  are  far  from  common 
among  the  commercial  growers.  One  such  pole  has  a  wire  basket 
mounted  on  one  end  ;  the  top  of  the  basket  is  open  to  permit  the 
entrance  of  the  apple,  the  stem  and  twig  working  down  between 
the  wire  fingers  on  the  side,  and  the  operator  twisting  the  pole  to 
the  left  or  the  right  to  sever  the  stem  from  the  twig.  The  apple 
must  then  be  removed  from  the  wire  basket.  Another  pole  which 
operates  in  the  same  way  has  a  wire  basket  with  half  the  top  open 
at  one  side.  Still  another  pole  picker  severs  the  stem,  and  permits 
the  fruit  to  drop  down  through  a  cloth  tube  to  the  operator  or 
into  a  basket  on  the  ground  or  attached  to  the  handle.  The  chief 
objections  to  this  kind  of  picker  are  that  it  is  liable  to  bruise  the 
apples  and  is  slow  to  work  with,  thus  increasing  the  cost  of  picking. 

Organization  of  the  picking  force.  Organization  of  the  picking 
force  in  any  orchard  is  of  vital  importance.  For  greatest  efficiency, 
there  should  be  but  one  head,  or  boss,  who  has  full  command  of 
the  pickers. 

The  picking  force  should  not  be  allowed  to  stray  away  from  their 
particular  gang  of  which  the  boss  is  the  center.  The  work  of  the 
crew  should  start  at  one  side  of  the  orchard,  taking  a  certain  num- 
ber of  rows  of  trees,  and  proceed  steadily  through  these  rows  to 
the  other  side  of  the  orchard.  Then  another  definite  set  of  rows 
should  be  picked.  If  more  than  one  picking  is  to  be  given,  or  if 
the  varieties  are  mixed  in  the  orchard,  slight  modifications  of  this 
method  may  be  necessary.  However,  the  general  scheme  of  organ- 
ization is  to  work  systematically  by  having  the  pickers  grouped 
together  under  one  boss,  and  equipped  with  ladders,  baskets,  and 
the  other  apparatus  necessary  for  quick  and  efficient  picking. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
GRADING 

Reasons  for  better  grading.  Several  years  ago  the  grading  of 
fruit  was  not  considered  necessary,  but  as  fruit-growing  has  de- 
veloped from  a  side  issue  on  the  farm  to  an  important  business,  a 
change  in  the  methods  of  handling  the  crop  has  been  imperative. 
Competition  has  become  so  keen  and  the  consumer  has  become  so 
well  educated,  that  in  order  to  sell  apples  at  remunerative  prices 
the  conscientious  grading  of  fruit  must  be  practiced. 

Sometimes,  even  in  recent  years,  buyers  have  been  greatly  de- 
ceived by  unfair,  dishonest  methods  of  grading.  Often  barrels  of 
apples  which  show  good-sized  specimens  as  "  facers  "  grade  down 
to  small  fruits  in  the  middle  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  barrel.  In 
time  sharp  competition  will  eliminate  such  swindles,  for  the  dis- 
honest grower  is  sure  to  suffer  in  the  long  run  if  such  practices 
are  continued. 

At  the  present  time  our  markets  are  flooded  with  apples  of  poor 
quality  that  should  never  have  been  packed.  As  a  result,  not  only 
are  very  low  prices  obtained  for  such  stock,  but  the  demand  for 
the  better  class  of  apples  is  hurt  and  prices  are  lowered.  We  are 
rapidly  reaching  a  period  in  the  apple  industry  when  there  will 
be  an  overproduction  of  apples  if  the  present  methods  of  packing 
continue.  In  fact,  that  period  of  overproduction  seems  to  have 
been  already  reached  —  prices  are  becoming  lower  and  lower  be- 
cause the  quality  packed  is  inferior.  There  is  one  way  in  which 
we  can  prevent  and  remedy  this  overproduction,  and  that  is  to 
raise  the  standards  of  packing  by  permitting  no  second-grade  apples 
to  be  packed.  If  the  growers  will  cooperate  to  ship  only  first-grade 
apples  to  the  market,  and  to  pack  those  in  a  more  attractive  manner, 
they  will  stimulate  a  demand  that  will  equal  any  production  of 
apples  that  may  take  place. 

But  what  shall  we  do  with  our  seconds  and  our  cider  apples  if  we 
cannot  pack  them  and  ship  them  to  our  markets  ?   The  evaporators 


GRADING 


271 


as  a  rule  offer  a  larger  price  for  second-grade  apples  than  they 
can  net  when  packed  in  barrels  and  sent  to  the  market.  If 
there  is  not  already  an  evaporator  in  your  section,  then  there  is 
need  of  cooperation  among  the  growers  to  erect  evaporators  which 
shall  take  care  of  the  second-grade  stock.  Cider  apples  will  never 
be  anything  but  cider  ap- 
ples, and  the  cider  mill 
is  the  only  place  for  them. 
It  is  absolute  fraud  to 
pack  in  with  other  apples 
any  wormy,  gnarled,  dis- 
eased apples  that  are  no 
larger  than  walnuts.  But 
even  if  you  had  to  throw 
away  and  lose  absolutely 
all  second-grade  and  cider 
apples,  you  would  be  wise 
in  so  doing,  for  if  they 
are  mixed  in  with  first- 
grade  fruit,  or  even  if 
packed  separately,  they 
command  only  very  low 
prices  and  lessen  the  de- 
mand for,  and  the  price 
of,  the  best-grade  apples. 
It  would  be  much  better 
to  cull  from  the  tree  all 
small,  diseased  fruit  while 
the  crop  is  still  growing, 
so  that  whatever  remained 

would  be  of  first  quality.  Any  person  experienced  in  the  growing 
of  apples  knows  that  the  fruit  which  remains  would  increase  in 
size  and  make  up  all  the  loss. 

Grading  rules  and  laws.  In  the  better  grading  of  fruit  the  West 
has  far  outstripped  the  East.  Undoubtedly  the  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  Westerners  early  realized  that  they  must  sell  their  apples 
at  a  good  price  in  order  to  cover  the  expenses  of  growing  and 
shipping.    It  was  then  necessary  to  outdo  the  other  competitors 


FlG.  i  28.    Harvest  time 
Picking,  sorting,  and  packing,  out  in  the  orchard 


272  THE  APPLE 

in  the  fineness  of  the  grade  shipped.  One  glance  at  a  Western  box 
of  fruit  by  any  person  would  readily  convince  him  that  the  apples 
were  of  uniform  size,  shape,  and  color.  The  East  is  slowly  adopting 
the  Western  methods  of  close  grading,  and  competition  between 
the  various  apple-producing  sections  is  becoming  keener  each  year. 
Some  of  the  rules  followed  by  various  sections  of  the  West 
are  given  below. 

HOOD  RIVER  OREGON  GRADING  RULES 

The  three  grades,  Extra  Fancy,  Fancy,  and  Choice,  heretofore  in  common 
use,  will  be  recognized.  Special  and  Orchard  Run  grades  are  also  established. 
Rules  governing  the  disposal  of  cooking  and  cider  apples  are  appended,  also 
the  specifications  and  explanations  defining  the  condition  of  the  fruit  to  be 
placed  in  the  respective  packs  and  grades. 

Extra  Fancy.  This  grade  includes  mature,  normal-shaped  apples  free  from 
imperfection.  Spitzenburgs  I  75's  and  larger  must  be  three  fourths  (75  per 
cent)  normal  red  color;  sizes  185's  to  2oo's,  inclusive,  must  be  90  per  cent 
red.  All  red  varieties  must  show  at  least  three  fourths  red  color;  striped  or 
partially  red  one  half  (50  per  cent)  red  color.  Red  Cheek  Pippin  and  Winter 
Bananas  must  show  a  blushed  cheek.  The  Ortley  must  show  white,  yellow, 
or  waxy.  Sizes  smaller  than  200's  will  be  excluded  from  this  grade,  except 
Jonathan,  Newtown,  Winesap,  Arkansas  Black,  and  Missouri  Pippin,  which 
must  not  be  smaller  than  2  2  5's. 

Fancy.  All  apples  placed  in  this  grade  must  be  mature  and  of  a  normal 
shape.  All  red  apples  must  be  at  least  one  fourth  (25  per  cent)  normal  red 
color;  striped  or  partially  red  varieties  must  show  10  per  cent  red  color. 
Specimens  with  leaf  and  limb  rubs,  spray  russet,  and  similar  defects  which 
have  not  distorted  the  fruit,  when  not  over  \  inch  in  the  aggregate,  will  be 
allowed.  No  fungus-infested  or  stung  apples  will  be  allowed  in  this  grade. 
No  size  smaller  than  200's  allowed. 

Special.  This  grade  includes  varieties  equal  to  Fancy  in  grade,  but  with 
one  sting  of  the  codling  moth  or  one  fungous  spot  not  larger  than  1  inch  in 
diameter  or  smaller  ones  aggregating  the  same  area  or  less.  Sizes  smaller 
than  I75's  must  be  free  from  stings  and  fungus. 

Choice.  In  this  grade  may  be  placed  all  merchantable  apples  not  included 
in  the  Extra  Fancy  and  Fancy  grades.  All  apples  must  be  sound,  free  from 
bruises,  with  skin  unbroken,  and  of  good  shape.  Specimens  with  a  fungous 
spot  not  larger  than  a  ten-cent  piece,  —  one  to  an  apple,  —  or  three  spots 
aggregating  a  similar  area,  will  be  allowed.  Sizes  smaller  than  1 75's 
not  allowed. 

Orchard  Run.  Only  such  apples  as  may  be  classed  as  Choice,  or  better, 
may  be  placed  in  this  grade.  No  full-green  specimens  of  a  red  variety  will  be 
allowed.    Sizes  limited  to  i85's  for  this  grade. 


GRADING  273 

Cooking  or  cider  apples.  The  following  apples  cannot  be  placed  in  any  of 
the  grades,  but  may  be  disposed  of  for  cooking  purposes :  those  too  poorly 
colored  to  meet  the  color  requirements  of  the  grades,  windfalls,  sunburned, 
bruised,  infested  with  fungus,  water  core,  Baldwin  spot  or  other  physiological 
defects,  any  of  which  do  not  render  the  apple  undesirable  for  culinary  purposes. 
No  sizes  smaller  than  1  50's  allowed. 

Apples  infested  with  San  Jose  scale,  oyster-shell  bark  louse,  and  codling 
moth  must  be  disposed  of  according  to  the  Oregon  horticultural  law. 

Sizes.  Three-tier:  36,  45,  54,  63,  64;  three-and-one-half-tier :  72.  80,  84, 
88;  four-tier:  96,  104,  112,  120,  125,  128;  four-and-one-half-tier :  13S,  140, 
144,  150,  165,  175;  five-tier:    185,  188,  190,  200,  215,  225. 


RULES  OF  THE  WENATCHEE  VALLEY   WASHINGTON  FRUIT 
GROWERS'  ASSOCIATION 

Proper  marking.  In  marking  all  fruit  packages,  care  should  be  taken  that 
all  marks  are  made  in  a  neat  manner  and  in  the  proper  place.  The  grower's 
name,  and  the  grade,  variety,  and  number  of  apples  in  the  box  should  appear 
on  the  labeled  end  of  the  box  above  the  label.  We  suggest  that  the  following 
rule  be  adopted  : 

Summer  apples.  Pack  only  one  grade  of  summer  apples  —  Orchard  Run; 
but  in  making  this  pack,  keep  out  all  small  and  imperfect  fruit,  or,  in  other 
words,  pack  only  sound  apples  free  from  worms,  scale,  and  other  defects,  and 
pack  none  smaller  than  200  apples  to  the  box.  All  boxes  shall  be  stamped  with 
the  grower's  name,  the  variety,  and  the  number  of  apples  which  they  contain. 

Fall  and  winter  apples.  All  fall  and  winter  apples  shall  be  packed  in 
standard-size  boxes,  which  must  be  new  and  clean.  The  sidepieces  shall  be 
nailed  with  four  nails  in  the  end  of  each  piece.  Both  the  top  and  the  bottom 
shall  be  cleated,  and  four  nails  shall  be  used  in  each  cleat.  No  smaller  than 
fivepenny  cement  nails  are  to  be  used  throughout.  Do  the  nailing  properly. 
All  boxes  shall  be  lined  with  paper  on  the  inside,  and  all  apples  shall  be 
wrapped,  unless  otherwise  specified.  The  apples  shall  be  firmly  packed  in  boxes 
in  tiers,  and  each  box  shall  contain  a  uniform  size  of  apples.  The  boxes  after 
being  packed  shall  show  not  more  than  1^  inches  nor  less  than  1  inch  bulge 
on  top  and  bottom,  inclusive.  While  the  apples  must  be  firmly  packed,  so  that 
the  boxes  will  be  full  and  the  apples  secure  in  their  places,  the  pack  must  not 
be  so  tight  as  to  bruise  the  fruit.  Apples  range  from  36  to  200  to  the  box.  This 
year  [19 14]  the  number  of  apples  the  box  contains  should  be  stamped  on  the 
outside  instead  of  tiers.  This  is  done  so  that  the  retailer  will  know  how  many 
apples  are  in  the  box  and  the  cost  per  apple  or  dozen.  All  apples  must  be 
packed  diagonally,  with  solid  sides.  All  fall  and  winter  apples  shall  be  graded 
in  three  grades,  namely,  Extra  Fancy,  Fancy,  and  Grade  C. 

Extra  Fancy.  In  this  grade  all  apples  shall  be  sound,  smooth,  free  from 
worms,  worm  stings,  scale,  water  core,  sun  damage,  or  diseases  of  any  kind, 
and  of  proper  shape  according  to  the  variety.     No  apples  smaller  than  1  75  s 


274  THE  APPLE 

shall  be  allowed  in  this  grade,  nor  any  apples  of  a  red  variety  that  are  not  at 
least  three  fourths  red,  except  Rome  Beauty,  Ben  Davis,  Snow,  and  Apple 
of  Commerce,  that  are  one  half  red.  Yellow  Newtowns,  White  Winter  Pear- 
mains,  Grimes  Golden,  Bellflowers,  Winter  Bananas,  and  Red  Cheek  Pippins 
will  be  allowed  in  this  grade,  but  no  other  variety  of  yellow  apples.  Winter 
Bananas  and  Red  Cheek  Pippins  must  show  a  red  cheek. 

Jui /icy.  In  this  grade,  also,  all  apples  must  be  smooth,  sound,  free  from 
bruises,  blemishes,  worms,  worm  stings,  water  core,  sun  damages,  and  diseases 
of  every  kind,  and  of  proper  shape  according  to  the  variety.  No  apples 
smaller  than  I75's  shall  be  allowed  in  this  grade,  except  apples  of  the  follow- 
ing varieties,  which  will  be  accepted  when  packed  as  small  as  200  apples  to 
the  box :  Winesaps,  Jonathans,  and  Missouri  Pippins,  when  red  all  over.  All 
apples  of  red  varieties  ranging  in  color  from  three  fourths  red  down  to  one 
third  red  will  be  included  in  this  grade.  All  varieties  of  yellow  apples  will  be 
allowed  in  this  grade. 

Labels.  All  boxes  containing  apples  graded  Extra  Fancy  or  Fancy  must 
bear  the  association  label  on  the  end  of  the  box. 

Grade  C.  This  grade  shall  be  made  up  of  all  merchantable  apples  not 
included  in  the  Extra  Fancy  and  Fancy  grades.  These  apples  must  be  sound, 
and  free  from  bruises,  worm  stings,  and  other  diseases.  The  skin  must  be 
unbroken,  but  misshapen  apples,  or  apples  having  a  limb  mark  or  other  like 
defect,  will  be  allowed.  This  grade  will  include  apples  of  all  colors,  and  as 
small  as  2oo's,  but  no  smaller.  It  is  optional  with  the  buyer  whether  or  not 
this  grade  is  wrapped. 


RULES  OF  THE  NORTHWESTERN  FRUIT  EXCHANGE 

Extra  Fancy.  This  grade  shall  consist  of  sound,  smooth,  well-formed 
apples  only,  free  from  all  insect  pests,  disease,  blemishes,  and  physical  injuries, 
worms,  wormholes,  stings,  scale,  scab,  sunscald,  fungus,  dry  rot,  decay,  water 
core,  spray  burns,  limb  rub,  russeting,  skin  puncture,  skin  broken  at  stem. 
All  apples  must  be  of  the  natural  color  and  shape  characteristic  of  the  variety. 
Apples  heavily  coated  with  dirt  or  spray  must  be  cleaned.  Color  requirements 
for  this  grade  are  as  follows :  Solid  red  varieties,  like  Arkansas  Black,  Gano, 
Jonathan,  Missouri  Pippin,  Spitzenburg,  Winesap,  etc.  must  have  at  least 
75  per  cent  of  good  natural  color.  Mcintosh  Red  must  have  not  less  than 
66|  per  cent  of  good  natural  color.  Striped  or  partially  red  varieties,  like 
Ben  Davis,  Delicious,  Rome  Beauty,  Stayman  Winesap,  etc.,  must  have  at 
least  50  per  cent  of  good  red  color.  Red  cheek  or  blush  varieties,  like  Red 
Cheek  Pippin,  Winter  Banana,  etc.,  must  have  a  distinctly  colored  cheek  or 
blush.  Sizes  in  this  grade  shall  not  be  smaller  than  i75's,  but  Jonathans, 
Missouri  Pippins,  and  Winesaps  may  be  packed  as  small  as  20o's. 

Fancy.  Apples  in  this  grade  must  possess  the  same  physical  requirements 
as  to  soundness  and  freedom  from  insect  pests,  disease,  blemishes,  and  physi- 
cal injuries  or  defects  as  the  Extra  Fancy,  with  the  exception  that  minimum 


GRADING 


275 


defects,  such  as  slight  limb  rub  and  russeting,  may  be  accepted.  Broken  or 
punctured  skin  will  not  be  permitted.  Slight  deviations  from  proper  form 
may  be  included,  but  not  clearly  misshapen  fruit.  Fancy  grade  must  be  con- 
sidered as  representing  strictly  first-class  commercial  fruit,  fit  for  any  market. 
Apples  heavily  coated  with  dirt  or  spray  must  be  cleaned.  Color  requirements 
for  this  grade  are  as  follows:  Solid  red  varieties,  including  Mcintosh  Red 
must  have  at  least  33^  per  cent  of  good  natural  color.  Striped  or  partially 
red  varieties  must  have  at  least  20  per  cent  of  good  red  color.  Red  cheek  or 
blush  varieties  must  have  correct  physical  qualities,  without  requirement  as  to 
color.  Sizes  in  this  grade  shall  not  be  smaller  than  175's.  except  as  follows. 
Newtown  Pippins  and  other  yellow  or  green  pippin  varieties  may  be  packed 
up  to  225's,  inclusive.  Solid  red  varieties  may  be  packed  up  to  20o"s.  inclusive. 
when  containing  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  good  red  color.  Winesaps  and 
Missouri  Pippins  may  be  packed  as  small  as  225's  when  not  less  than  75  per 
cent  of  good  natural  color. 

C  grade.  This  grade  shall  be  made  up  of  all  merchantable  apples  not 
included  in  the  Extra  Fancy  or  Fancy  grades.  Apples  must  be  free  from  all 
insect  pests,  worms,  wormholes,  disease  or  physical  injuries,  including  skin 
puncture  and  broken  skin.  No  requirements  as  to  color,  except  that  the  fruit 
must  clearly  be  not  immature.  Sizes  may  be  as  small  as  200's  except  under 
unusual  circumstances. 


Minimum 

Color  Re- 

General 

Physical  Per- 

Packing 

Size 

QUIREMENT 

Condition 

fection 

Standard 

Solid  red  varieties 
Arkansas  Black  .     . 

I50 

75  per  cent 

c  -a 
.2  Si 

free  from 
injuries, 

sunscald, 
ray  burns, 

at  stem 

■w    0 

Mcintosh  Red     .     .     . 
Spitzenburg     .     .     .     . 

150 
150 

good  nat- 
ural color 

c   ° 
3  * 

3    u 

q     Winesap 

h  Partially  red  varieties 

163 

■0   % 

med, 
ishes 
scab, 
e,  sp 
roken 

0  3 

.Ms 

3     Delicious 

138 

50  per  cent 

aiy  M 

SEjo^ 

H     Gravenstein    .... 

150 

good   red 

a    a.  o 

—  -Q    0    ■-  3 

"S  a  0 

2     Jonathan     

150 

color 

05  <  5 

% ,  ".  2  • 

must  be  wrapp 

per.     Pack  mu 

as  per  list  at  L 

<     Rome  Beauty       .     .     . 
o      Stayman  Winesap    .     . 
0  Blushed  red  varieties 
h     Red  Cheek  Pippin  . 
§     Winter  Banana    .     .     . 

C38 
138 

'So 
138 

Cheek  dis- 
tinctly col- 

1*1 

0  .52 

nd,  smooth, 
ests,    disease 
holes,  stings 
y,  fungus,  w 
.in  punctures 

Yellow  varieties 

ored 

C  .2   ? 

g   ag   g- 

4)     & 

Grimes  Golden    .     .     . 
Ortley 

ISO 

150 

Good  natu- 
ral color 

O    m 

w  e  1  -8  4 

.0  8    -  *r  S 

C     <»     O     n 

White  Winter  Tearmain 
Yellow  Newtown      .     . 

150 
163 

J  jj 

Must 
all    i 
worm 
dry  r 

lim 

276 


THE  APPLE 


No.  2  Grade 

Minimum 

Size 

Com  iK  Re- 
quirement 

General 

Co    " 

Physical  Per- 
fect roN 

Packing 
Standard 

Solid  red  varieties 
E  Partially  red  varieties 

331  percent 
good  nat- 
ural color 

20  per  cent 

viation    from 
uded,  but  not 
Apples  heav- 
t  be  cleaned 

:,  except  that 
ub,  slight  rus- 
sting  will  be 
:  shall   show 
;se  defects 

O 

> 

S  Blushed  varieties 

3 

en     O 

good  red 
color 

None 

th    slight    de 
m  may  be  incl 
lymisshapen. 
with  dirt  mu. 

Same  as  for  No.  1  Grad 
apples  with  slight  limb  r 
seting,  or  small  healed 
admitted,  but   no    applt 
more  than  one  of  th 

6 

0 

V. 

£ 

^8"8 

E 

Yellow  varieties 

c 

0 

None 

Apples 
proper 
whencl 
ily  coat 

Exception's.  Yellow  Newtowns  may  be  as  small  as  size  200.  Jonathan, 
Spitzenburg,  and  Winesap  will  be  admitted  in  sizes  188  and  200,  if  up  to 
color  requirements  for  No.  1  Grade.  Rome  Beauty,  if  125  or  larger,  will  be 
admitted  when  10  per  cent  red. 


No.  3  Grade 

Minimum 

Color  Re- 

General 

Physical  Per- 

Packing 

Size 

quirement 

Condition 

fectu  in 

Standard 

May    include    all     mer- 
chantable apples  not  ad- 
mitted to  Grades  No.  1 

6 
« 

c  .2 

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cj 

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all    in- 

worms, 

Skin 

n    skin 

d 

or  No.  2 

£    0 

en           ^ 

c   «   E 
ggj 

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isease, 

njuries 

brokt 

;rmitte 

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withou 
ing 

J£     <D 

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K        >, 

£  ^  Z  0  a 

1-  « 

1* 

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^  II  2  S 

a    w 

c 

1-1 

Must 
sect 
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punc 

"*  £J 

0 

0 

Ph    a- 

All  grades  must  be  rigidly  observed.  Apples  not  admissible  to  grades 
specified   must   be  withheld  from   market. 

Designate  sizes  by  count;  do  not  show  tiers.  The  only  recognized  counts 
for  Northwest  standard  apple  packs  are  as  follows :  41,  45,  48,  56,  64,  72,  8o, 
88,  96,  100,  104,  113,  125,  138.  150,  163,  175,  188,  200. 

A  national  law  —  the  Sulzer  Bill.  It  was  with  the  apprecia- 
tion that  a  certain  crisis  had  arrived  in  the  apple  industry,  and 
that  standards  must  be  created  and  maintained  in  order  that  the 


GRADING  277 

demand  for  apples  might  increase  with  the  production,  that  the 
Apple  Shippers'  Association  a  few  years  ago  drafted  the  first 
standardization  measure  regarding  the  packing  and  grading  of 
apples.  Gradually,  various  horticultural  societies  gave  their  sup- 
port, and  to-day  the  national  law  establishing  standards  for  the 
marketing  of  apples,  known  as  the  Sulzer  Bill,  is  proof  that  growers 
everywhere  appreciated  the  need  of  such  fixed  standards. 

This  law  is  not  mandatory  ;  it  does  not  compel  any  grower  to 
pack  his  apples  in  a  different  way  from  that  in  which  he  is  accus- 
tomed to  pack  them  ;  it  does  not  compel  honesty,  nor  can  it  com- 
pel intelligence.  The  Sulzer  law  is  educational  in  its  nature,  and 
holds  out  rewards  for  better  packing  and  grading.  It  establishes  a 
definition  of  standard  apples.  It  provides  that  such  standard  apples 
may  be  packed  in  three  grades,  differing  from  each  other  only  as 
to  size.  It  provides  and  defines  the  capacity  of  a  standard  barrel, 
and  states  that  when  the  standard  grade  defined  by  the  law  shall 
be  packed  in  the  standard  barrel  defined  by  the  law,  the  grower 
may  then  use  certain  United  States  brands  to  designate  the  three 
grades  of  his  apples.  The  law  also  provides  that,  in  case  any  grower 
shall  use  these  United  States  brands  on  barrels  not  packed  in 
accordance  with  the  law,  certain  penalties  shall  attach,  and  may 
be  collected  from  the  one  responsible  for  the  deception. 

The  law  secures  to  the  honest  packer  the  results  of  his  packing. 
It  enables  him  to  use  certain  brands  to  designate  his  methods  of 
packing  which  the  fraudulent  grower  may  not  use  except  by  mak- 
ing himself  liable  to  the  penalty  laid  down  by  the  Federal  govern- 
ment. The  standard  quality  of  apples  as  provided  by  this  law  is 
as  follows  : 

Apples  of  one  variety,  well-grown  specimens,  hand-picked,  of  good  color  for 
the  variety,  normal  shape,  practically  free  from  insect  or  fungus  injury,  bruises, 
and  other  defects,  shall  be  the  standard  quality.  An  allowance  of  1  o  per  cent 
leeway  is  made  to  any  grower  in  the  packing  of  this  quality.  This  quality  may 
be  packed  into  three  grades,  as  follows : 

From  2^  inches  up,  first  grade. 

From  2I  inches  up,  second  grade. 

From  2  inches  up,  third  grade. 

The  brands  shall  be  as  follows : 

When  the  apples  are  practically  perfect  in  quality  and  packed  from  z\  inches 
up,  the  barrel  may  be  branded  Standard  Grade,  minimum  size  2^  inches. 


278  THE  APPLE 

When  the  barrels  are  packed  with  apples  of  practically  perfect  quality  from 
2\  inches  up,  the  barrel  may  be  branded  Standard  Grade,  minimum  size  2^-  inches. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  third  grade  may  be  branded  Standard  Grade,  mini- 
mum size  2  inches,  when  it  contains  apples  of  practically  perfect  quality  from 
2  inches  up. 

The  effect  of  this  bill  will  be  to  give  confidence  to  the  purchaser ; 
to  increase  the  demand  for  apples  ;  to  raise  the  price  because  of 
the  increased  demand  ;  and  to  stimulate  the  exporting  of  apples 
to  Europe  and  South  America,  which  is  a  pressing  need  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  the  export  trade  in  American  apples  has  been  steadily 
falling  off  for  the  last  five  years.  Canada  has  a  standardization  act 
regarding  apples  which  has  been  in  existence  five  years,  and  the 
Canadian  exports  have  grown  steadily  and  have  given  increasing 
satisfaction,  while  the  American  apples  have  become  a  source  of 
general  complaint  to  all  European  consumers. 

As  already  explained,  the  Sulzer  Bill  permits  the  use  of  United 
States  brands  for  apples  that  are  packed  in  accordance  with  its  pro- 
visions. It  will  not  be  long,  however,  before  the  retailers  through- 
out the  country  will  understand  the  distinction  between  the  standard 
United  States  pack  of  apples  and  the  ordinary  pack,  known  as  the 
"farmer's"  pack,  and  will  pay  a  premium  of  from  25  cents  to  $2.25 
for  the  assurance  that  the  apples  they  are  about  to  buy  have  the 
government  guaranty  behind  them,  and  are  packed  true  to  the 
promise  of  the  face  that  is  opened  before  them.  There  is  a  gen- 
eral opinion  that  apples  are  worth  about  one  price.  We  speak  of 
the  "  going  price  "  of  apples,  or  what  apples  are  worth,  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  every  grade  of  every  variety  in  almost  every  orchard 
has  a  different  value  and  sells  for  a  different  price  on  the  market. 
Northern  Spies  of  first  quality  from  Vermont  have  sold  all  the 
way  from  $2.50  to  $14.00  per  barrel,  and  there  is  one  Vermont 
orchard  that  for  years  has  maintained,  regardless  of  market  condi- 
tions, a  selling  value  of  $12.00  per  barrel  for  its  highest  grade, 
which  are  really  all  facers  ;  $8.00  per  barrel  for  the  No.  i's,  which 
are  packed  in  accordance  with  the  first  provision  of  the  Sulzer  bill ; 
and  from  $3.50  to  $4.00  for  the  No.  2  apples. 

The  Sulzer  Bill  is,  after  all,  very  elementary  and  not  compulsory. 
It  only  establishes  by  law  what  was  supposed  already  to  be  the  cus- 
tom in  the  packing  and  grading  of  apples  throughout  the  country. 


GRADING  279 

NEW  YORK   STATE  APPLE  GRADING  LAW 
Chapter  41.S 

An  act  to  regulate  the  grading,  packing,  marking,  shipping,  and 
sale  of  apples 

That  the  standard  grades  or  classes  for  apples  grown  in  this  state  when 
packed  in  closed  packages  shall  be  as  follows : 

First :  New  York  standard  fancy  grade  shall  consist  of  apples  of  one  vari- 
ety, which  are  well-grown  specimens,  hand-picked,  properly  packed,  of  good 
color  for  the  variety,  normal  shape,  free  from  dirt,  diseases,  insect  and  fungus 
injury,  bruises  and  other  defects  except  such  as  are  necessarily  caused  in  the 
operation  of  packing ;  or  apples  of  one  variety  which  are  not  more  than  five 
per  centum  below  the  foregoing  specifications  on  a  combination  of  all  defects 
or  two  per  centum  on  any  single  defect. 

Second:  New  York  standard  "A"  grade  shall  consist  of  apples  of  one  vari- 
ety which  are  well-grown  specimens,  hand-picked,  properly  packed,  normal 
shape,  practically  free  from  dirt,  diseases,  insect  and  fungus  injury,  bruises 
and  other  defects  except  such  as  are  necessarily  caused  in  the  operation  of 
packing;  or  apples  of  one  variety  which  are  not  more  than  ten  per  centum 
below  the  foregoing  specifications  on  a  combination  of  all  defects  or  five  per 
centum  on  any  single  defect.  No  apples  in  this  grade  shall  show  less  than 
thirty-three  and  one-third  per  centum  of  good  color  for  the  variety. 

Third :  New  York  standard  "  B  "  grade  shall  consist  of  apples  of  one  vari- 
ety which  are  well-matured,  hand-picked,  properly  packed,  practically  normal 
shape,  practically  free  from  dirt,  diseases,  insect  and  fungus  injury ;  or  apples 
of  one  variety  which  are  not  more  than  fifteen  per  centum  below  the  fore- 
going specifications  on  a  combination  of  all  defects  or  five  per  centum  on  any 
single  defect. 

Fourth  :  Ungraded.  Apples  not  conforming  to  the  foregoing  specifications 
of  grade,  or,  if  conforming,  are  not  branded  in  accordance  therewith,  shall  be 
classed  as  ungraded  and  so  branded.  The  minimum  size  of  the  fruit  in  the 
package  shall  also  be  branded  upon  it  as  hereinafter  specified  and  in  addition 
to  the  other  marks  hereinafter  required. 

The  marks  indicating  grade  as  above  prescribed  may  be  accompanied  by 
any  other  designation  of  grade  or  brand  if  that  designation  or  brand  is  not  in- 
consistent with  or  marked  more  conspicuously  than  the  one  of  the  said  four 
marks  which  is  used  on  the  said  package.  Apples  packed  and  branded  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  United  States  law  approved  August  third,  nineteen  hundred 
and  twelve,  shall  be  exempt  from  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

The  minimum  size  of  the  fruit  in  all  classes  or  grades,  including  the  un- 
graded, shall  be  determined  by  taking  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  smallest 
fruit  in  the  package  at  right  angles  to  the  stem  and  blossom  end.  Minimum 
sizes  shall  be  stated  in  variations  of  one-quarter  of  an  inch,  like  two  inches, 


280  THE  APPLE 

two  and  one-quarter  inches,  two  and  one-half  inches,  two  and  three-quarter 
inches,  three  inches,  three  and  one-quarter  inches,  and  so  on,  in  accordance 
with  the  facts. 

Minimum  sizes  may  be  designated  by  figures  instead  of  words.  The  word 
"  minimum"  may  be  designated  by  using  the  abbreviation  "  min." 

A  tolerance  or  variation  of  five  per  centum  on  size  shall  be  allowed  in  all 
classes,  but  such  five  per  centum  shall  not  be  in  addition  to  the  variations  or 
tolerances  for  defects  provided  in  grades  "  Fancy,"  "A,"  and  "  B." 

{A)  Every  closed  package  containing  apples  grown  in  the  state  of  New  York 
which  is  sold,  offered,  or  exposed  for  sale,  or  packed  for  sale,  or  transported  for 
sale  by  any  person  shall  bear  upon  the  outside  of  one  end  in  plain  letters  and 
figures  the  name  and  address  of  the  packer  or  the  person  by  whose  authority 
the  apples  were  packed  and  the  package  marked,  the  true  name  of  the  variety, 
the  grade  or  class  of  the  apples  therein  contained,  and  the  minimum  size  of  the 
fruit  in  the  packages.  If  the  true  name  of  the  variety  shall  not  be  known  to 
the  packer  or  the  person  by  whose  authority  the  package  is  packed  or  branded, 
then  such  variety  shall  be  designated  as  "  unknown."  Every  package  of  apples 
which  is  repacked  shall  bear  the  name  and  address  of  the  repacker  or  the 
name  of  the  person  by  whose  authority  it  is  repacked  in  place  of  that  of  the 
original  packer. 

(B)  The  marks  or  brands  as  prescribed  by  this  act  shall  be  in  block  letters 
and  figures  of  size  of  not  less  than  thirty-six  points  Gothic. 

(C)  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  within  the  state  to  sell,  offer  or  ex- 
pose for  sale,  or  pack  for  sale,  or  transport  for  sale  apples  which  are  adulter- 
ated or  misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  this  act. 

(D)  For  the  purposes  of  this  act  apples  packed  in  a  closed  package  shall 
be  deemed  to  be  misbranded. 

First.    If  the  package  shall  fail  to  bear  the  statements  required  by  this  act. 

Second.  If  the  package  shall  be  falsely  branded  or  shall  bear  any  statement, 
design,  or  device  regarding  such  apples  which  is  false  or  misleading,  or  if  the 
package  bears  any  statement,  design,  or  device  indicating  that  the  apples  con- 
tained therein  are  a  given  New  York  "  standard  grade  "  and  said  apples  when 
packed  or  repacked  do  not  conform  to  the  requirements  of  such  grade. 

(E)  For  the  purposes  of  this  act  apples  packed  in  closed  packages  shall  be 
deemed  to  be  adulterated  if  their  quality  or  grade  when  packed  or  repacked 
does  not  conform  to  the  marks  upon  the  package. 

(F)  Any  person  who  misbrands  or  adulterates  apples  within  the  meaning 
of  this  act,  or  who  violates  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall,  upon  convic- 
tion thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  to  the  people  of  the  state  of  New  York  a  sum  of 
not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars  nor  more  than  fifty  dollars  for  the  first  viola- 
tion and  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  for  each 
subsequent  violation. 

(G)  No  person  shall  be  prosecuted  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  when 
he  can  establish  a  guaranty  signed  by  the  person  from  whom  he  received  such 
articles  to  the  effect  that  the  same  is  not  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the 


GRADING  281 

meaning  of  this  act.  Said  guaranty  to  be  valid  shall  contain  the  true  name 
and  address  of  the  person  or  persons  making  the  sale,  and  in  such  case  the 
guarantor  shall  be  liable  to  the  penalties  of  this  act. 

(//)  Definitions.  The  word  "  person  "  as  used  herein  shall  be  construed  to 
include  both  the  singular  and  plural,  individuals,  corporations,  copartnerships, 
companies,  societies,  and  associations.  The  act,  omission,  or  failure  of  any  officer, 
agent,  servant,  or  employee  acting  within  the  scope  of  his  employment  or  office 
shall  be  deemed  the  act,  omission,  or  failure  of  the  principal.  The  words  "closed 
package"  shall  mean  a  box,  barrel,  or  other  package,  the  contents  of  which  can- 
not be  seen  or  inspected  when  such  package  is  closed. 

(/)  No  person  shall  on  behalf  of  any  other  person  pack  any  fruit  for  sale 
or  transportation  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

(/)  This  act  shall  not  apply  to  apples  actually  transported  in  barrels  to 
storage  within  this  state  until  the  same  are  sold,  offered,  or  exposed  for  sale. 

§  2.  Chapter  four  hundred  and  eighteen  of  the  laws  of  nineteen  hundred 
and  fourteen,  entitled  "An  act  to  regulate  the  grading,  packing,  marking,  ship- 
ping, and  sale  of  apples,"  is  hereby  repealed. 

§  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  July  first,  nineteen  hundred  and  fifteen. 

Methods  of  grading.  Some  growers  advance  the  idea  that  the 
grading  of  apples  should  begin  with  the  picking  of  the  fruit  from 
the  trees.  By  this  method  the  pickers,  after  removing  the  apples 
from  the  trees  and  placing  them  in  bags,  pails,  baskets,  or  the  like, 
should  then  be  required  to  empty  them  into  the  boxes  in  which  the 
fruit  is  to  be  stored  or  packed.  The  apples  may  be  transferred 
separately  by  hand,  each  apple  being  handled  as  if  it  were  an  egg ; 
they  should  not  be  poured  into  the  boxes.  During  the  picking  and 
the  transfer  from  basket  to  box,  the  pickers  should  carefully  sort 
out  fruits  that  are  badly  blemished,  placing  them  to  one  side.  The 
choice,  selected  apples  may  then  be  stored  or  made  ready  for 
packing,  according  to  the  convenience  of  the  orchardist. 

Another  method  is  to  have  the  apples  graded  by  hand  as  they 
are  received  from  the  pickers  at  the  packing  tables  or  stands.  This 
method  consists  in  putting  in  one  grade  the  fruits  of  a  certain  size, 
shape,  and  color,  conforming  closely  to  some  rule  like  those  men- 
tioned above,  each  apple  being  as  nearly  like  the  others  as  possible. 
To  do  this  the  grader  must  know  the  rules  for  grading  and  must  have 
had  experience  in  the  selection  of  specimen  apples  for  each  grade. 

The  sorting  tables  are  generally  made  about  3  feet  wide  and  from 
6  to  8  or  more  feet  long.  Legs  of  2  x  4's,  or  trestles,  are  used  to 
raise  the  table  above  the  ground,  the  height  of  the  table  being  from 


282 


THE  APPLE 


3  to  3}  feet.  The  tables  have  boards  nailed  to  the  sides,  making 
a  boxlike  structure  with  the  sides  from  6  to  8  inches  above  the  top 
of  the  table.  To  prevent  bruising  the  fruit  the  sides  and  bottom 
are  padded.  From  two  to  three  barrels  of  apples  may  be  spread 
out  upon  this  table,  thus  allowing  the  grader  a  large  enough  quan- 
tity to  insure  a  uniform  grade  and  to  make  rapid  work  possible. 


Fig.  129.    Fall  work  in  the  orchard 

Grading  the  fruit  and  packing  in  barrels.    Notice  the  simple  device  for  heading, 
near  the  man  at  the  left 


The  man  who  starts  the  grading  should  finish  the  job,  in  order 
to  maintain  a  uniform  grade  of  apples.  Frequent  shifting  of  graders 
is  sure  to  prove  unsatisfactory. 

Each  apple  is  carefully  inspected  by  the  grader  and  rated  as  first 
grade  or  second  grade  according  to  some  one  of  the  many  rules 
used  as  a  standard.  A  good  deal  of  the  grading  also  depends  largely 
on  the  common  sense  of  the  grader. 

Recently  large  growers  have  begun  to  use  grading  machines. 
After  many  years  of  experimenting,  fairly  satisfactory  machines 


GRADING  283 

have  at  last  been  produced.  The  obstacles  which  have  had  to  be 
overcome  in  the  perfecting  of  such  a  machine  have  been  very  great, 
and  a  brief  account  of  them  will  be  given  here. 

Apples  of  different  varieties  differ  widely  in  shape.  For  instance, 
a  Rhode  Island  Greening  is  fiat,  the  diameter  from  stem  to  calyx 
being  much  less  than  the  cheek-to-cheek  diameter,  while  a  Spitzen- 
burg  is  of  the  opposite  shape.  Decided  differences  in  shape  are 
also  common  in  apples  of  the  same  variety.  For  instance,  in  some 
districts  the  Spitzenburg  will  closely  resemble  the  Jonathan  in  form, 
while  in  another  district  it  will  be  a  decided  Sheepnose.  Not  only 
this,  but  apples  of  the  same  variety  grown  in  the  same  district,  or 
even  in  the  same  orchard,  may  differ  materially  in  shape.  Such 
cases  can  sometimes  be  traced  to  a  difference  in  the  conditions 
under  which  the  apples  are  grown,  the  soil  often  playing  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  character  of  the  fruit.  These  shape  irregularities 
are  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  blossom  end  of  the  apple. 
Regardless  of  the  variety,  the  greatest  cheek  circumference  of  the 
apple  is  in  all  cases  an  almost  perfect  circle. 

These  facts  concerning  the  various  shape  peculiarities  explain 
why  the  greatest  cheek-to-cheek  diameter  of  the  apple  has  become 
the  recognized  size-determining  factor  in  systematized  packing. 
Prior  to  191 1  there  was  no  mechanical  deciduous-fruit  sorter,  be- 
cause the  problem  of  cheek-to-cheek  measuring  by  machinery  had 
not  then  been  solved. 

Spitzenburgs  which  ranged  in  cheek-to-cheek  diameter  from 
3g\  inches  to  3^  inches  pack  out  96  in  a  box  having  an  inside 
measurement  of  ic4  X  II J  X  18  in.  However,  it  is  clear  that  a 
96  Rhode  Island  Greening  of  the  same  cheek-to-cheek  diameter 
would  not  have  filled  the  box  ;  in  other  words,  a  96  Esopus  must 
have  a  smaller  cheek-to-cheek  measurement  than  a  96  Rhode 
Island  Greening,  because  the  Rhode  Island  Greening,  being  shorter 
from  stem  to  calyx,  has  a  greater  cheek-to-cheek  diameter  to 
compensate.  Similar  differences  are  found  in  apples  of  the  same 
variety  which  are  grown  under  slightly  different  conditions.  For 
example,  a  certain  section  of  an  orchard  one  year  produced  apples 
having  a  much  greater  development  at  the  blossom  end  than 
had  the  apples  from  the  other  parts  of  the  orchard.  The  entire 
crop,  which  amounted  to  about  twelve  thousand  boxes,  was  handled 


284  THE  APPLE 

by  one  of  the  grading  machines.  No  difference  was  discovered  in 
the  shape  of  the  apples  until  the  packers  began  to  complain  that 
the  boxes  were  too  full.  Upon  investigation  it  was  found  that  the 
driver  had  just  commenced  hauling  apples  from  a  different  section 
of  the  orchard.  This  led  to  a  careful  examination  of  the  apples, 
which  showed  the  cause.  After  adjusting  the  machine  so  as  to 
make  a  slight  reduction  in  the  cheek-to-cheek  measurements,  the 
packing  was  resumed  and  no  further  trouble  experienced. 

The  style  of  pack  also  affects  the  cheek-to-cheek  dimensions 
of  the  pack  containing  a  given  number  of  apples.  Another  diffi- 
culty in  establishing  standard  measurements  is  the  many  different 
shapes  and  sizes  of  the  packages  used,  all  of  which  are  standard- 
ized to  some  extent  in  one  or  more  districts.  In  the  Western  apple- 
producing  states  alone  there  are  several  different  boxes  used,  the 
cubical  contents  being  different  in  each  case.  Two  which  are  used 
more  than  any  other  are  the  Standard,  a  box  ioA  X  nix  18  in., 
and  the  Special,  a  box  10x11x20  in.  The  parcel  post  has 
opened  a  new  field  to  the  grower  —  that  of  shipping  fruit  in  paper 
containers,  of  which  there  are  many  makes  and  sizes. 

The  tier  rating  of  apples,  namely,  3-tier,  3} -tier,  4-tier,  4^-tier, 
and  5-tier,  which  was  used  to  considerable  extent,  proved  unsatis- 
factory from  both  the  grower's  and  the  buyer's  viewpoint.  It  has 
been  gradually  dropped  by  the  associations  and  growers,  and  now 
the  number  of  apples  in  a  box  is  stamped  on  the  box  end,  together 
with  the  grade,  the  variety,  and  the  grower's  name. 

When  the  apple  buyer  is  familiar  with  the  size  of  the  package, 
and  is  given  the  number  of  apples  which  are  systematically  packed 
in  it,  he  knows  without  seeing  them  what  their  size  is. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  clear  that  it  is  impossible,  on  account 
of  the  numerous  general  shape  differences  and  irregularities  exist- 
ing not  only  between  apples  of  different  varieties  but  between 
those  of  the  same  variety,  to  establish  size  measurements  which 
are  capable  of  more  than  occasional  application.  There  are  many 
angles  to  the  size  problem  of  apples  alone,  to  say  nothing  of 
peaches,  pears,  etc.  What  the  market  demands  is  a  uniform  size 
and  grade  of  fruit,  systematically  packed  so  that  it  will  not  be 
damaged  in  shipment,  and  so  that  it  will  present  an  attractive  and 
tempting  appearance  when  opened. 


GRADING  285 

Mechanical  Sorters 

The  Schellenberger  machine  and  how  it  works.  What  the  fruit- 
grower requires  in  the  way  of  a  mechanical  sorter  is  one  that  will 
meet  every  condition  presented  by  the  shape  of  the  fruit  and  by 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  packages,  which  range  from  the  barrel 
to  the  paper  carton.  A  machine  that  will  meet  these  conditions 
must  not  only  do  accurate  cheek-to-cheek  measuring  but  must  be 
capable  of  quick  and  fine  adjustment,  so  that  the  sizing  is  done 
when  the  apples  reach  the  packing  table.  When  the  box  is  full 
it  must  represent  a  perfect  pack  having  the  proper  bulge,  regardless 
of  the  experience  or  lack  of  experience  on  the  packer's  part. 

Transferring  apples  to  the  hopper.  This  work  is  accomplished 
by  first  placing  a  piece  of  burlap  about  20  inches  wide  and  3  feet 
long  over  the  top  of  the  orchard  box.  This  burlap  is  held  in  posi- 
tion while  the  box  is  placed  upside  down  upon  the  hopper  bottom. 
The  box  is  then  slowly  lifted  from  the  apples,  allowing  them  to 
settle  gently  upon  the  hopper  bottom  just  back  of  the  color  and 
blemish  sorters.  The  burlap  is  then  drawn  out  from  under  the 
apples,  leaving  them  on  the  hopper  bottom  in  a  single  layer. 

Color  and  blemish  sorting.  This  feature  of  the  work  has  been 
given  most  careful  study,  in  order  to  eliminate  any  chance  of 
bruising  and  still  permit  accurate  and  rapid  work.  The  machine 
is  so  designed  that  the  feeding  and  the  feed-regulating  are  done 
automatically,  thus  leaving  the  sorters  with  only  the  sorting  to 
attend  to. 

The  sorting  is  accomplished  in  this  way  :  The  degree  of  color- 
ing and  the  blemishes  on  the  upturned  sides  of,  say,  five  apples 
are  noted  ;  then,  with  fingers  extended,  the  sorter  rolls  them  half 
over,  thus  bringing  to  view  the  sides  not  already  inspected.  A 
glance  is  sufficient,  and  they  are  pushed  to  the  near  end  of  the 
feedway,  one  section  taking  the  first  grade,  another  section  the 
second  grade,  and  the  machine  doing  the  rest.  Culls  are  picked 
up  by  the  sorters  and  dropped  into  the  cull  box.  After  a  few 
hours'  practice  at  color  and  blemish  sorting  with  the  machine,  a 
beginner  will  do  more  and  better  work  than  an  expert  sorter  without 
the  aid  of  the  machine.  Since  the  sorter  does  not  handle  the 
marketable  apples,  there  is  no  chance  to  drop  the  fruit  or  to  cause 


286  THE  APPLE 

stem  punctures  and  bruises  by  squeezing  apples  together,  as  is  in- 
evitable when  sorting  is  clone  entirely  by  hand  and  two  or  more 
apples  are  picked  up  at  one  time.  In  picking  apples  up  a  large 
portion  of  them  is  obscured  by  the  fingers,  with  the  invariable 
result  that  many  worm  and  other  blemishes  are  overlooked. 

This  system  of  sorting  for  color  and  blemish  has  been  developed 
as  the  result  of  practical  experience  at  our  own  orchards,  and  is 
highly  commended. 

Feeding.  The  machine  automatically  places  each  piece  of  fruit 
in  position  and  then  deposits  it  in  the  gauge  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  accomplish  cheek-to-cheek  sizing.  In  units  of  four  the  gauges 
move  into  position,  the  feedway  moving  forward  at  exactly  the 
same  speed  and  gently  depositing  one  piece  of  fruit  in  each  of  the 
four  gauges.  It  makes  no  difference  what  shape  or  size  the  fruit 
may  be,  only  one  piece  is  passed  to  each  gauge,  which  accurately 
sizes  it  and  deposits  it  in  the  proper  division  of  the  packing  table. 

Sizing.  The  sizing  is  accomplished  by  88  expanding  gauges 
operating  in  22  units  of  4  gauges  each.  These  units  are  mounted 
on  two  endless  sprocket  chains,  and  travel  from  the  feeding 
mechanism  over  the  entire  length  of  the  packing  tables. 

Each  gauge  is  constructed  like  a  basket  with  tapering  sides 
made  of  8  fingers,  which  are  hinged  to  the  top  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  lower  ends  form  a  circular  opening,  the  size  of  which 
is  smallest  when  the  fruit  enters  the  gauge  and  gradually  increases 
in  circumference  until  it  is  large  enough  for  the  fruit  to  pass 
through  to  the  packing  table.  The  fingers  are  hinged  to  rings 
and  held  in  position  by  them,  and  are  so  designed  as  to  shape 
that  the  circular  opening  at  the  bottom  will  be  smallest  when  the 
lower  ring  is  close  to  the  upper  ring.  This  circular  opening  gradu- 
ally and  uniformly  increases  in  size  as  the  lower  ring  is  lowered 
from  the  upper  ring,  and  at  the  lowest  position  of  ring  the  opening 
is  larger  than  the  opening  of  the  ring,  so  that  anything  that  can 
enter  the  gauge  will  surely  pass  out  on  the  last  packing  table. 
The  upper  rings  of  all  the  gauges  travel  horizontally  along  the 
length  of  the  machine,  while  the  lower  rings  are  guided  by  a 
slightly  inclined  track  which  brings  them  close  to  the  upper  rings 
when  the  gauges  are  under  the  feedway,  and  gradually  lowers  them, 
thus  increasing  the  size  of  the  gauge  openings  until  the  gauge  is 


GRADING  287 

emptied.  This  expanding  circular  opening  at  the  bottom  of  the 
gauge  is  necessary  to  accurate  size  sorting. 

The  track  which  guides  the  lower  rings  of  the  gauges  is  just 
inside  the  machine  and  cannot  be  shown  in  the  cuts.  The  amount 
of  incline  given  this  track  is  governed  by  four  adjusting  screws. 
From  the  time  the  gauges  leave  the  feeding  mechanism  until  they 
have  passed  over  the  entire  length  of  the  packing  tables,  the  size 
of  the  circular  holes  and  their  range  of  expansion  is  controlled  by 
these  adjusting  screws.  By  turning  them  the  entire  range  of  all 
the  88  gauges  can  be  instantly  regulated  to  give  any  sizes  from 
1 1  to  4^  inches.  For  instance,  assume  that  the  machine  is  adjusted 
to  grade  apples  ranging  in  size  from  2  to  3},  inches,  the  variation 
between  the  smallest  apple  and  the  largest  being  1  A  inches,  which 
variation  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  entire  length  of  the  packing 
tables  ;  if  the  grower  then  desires  to  adjust  the  machine  for  peaches, 
it  can  be  instantly  done  by  simply  turning  the  adjusting  screws  to 
give  a  range  of,  say,  i|  to  2|  inches,  or  a  variation  of  1  inch.  It 
will  be  readily  seen  that  this  feature  provides  for  a  perfect  distri- 
bution of  work  among  the  packers,  regardless  of  what  range  of 
sizes  is  represented  by  the  fruit. 

Packing  tables.  Particular  attention  is  directed  to  the  ideal 
arrangement  of  tables,  which  is  patented.  First  of  all,  the  fruit  is 
deposited  by  the  gauge  directly  upon  the  table  and  within  easy 
reach  of  the  packer,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  for  a  chute  or  run- 
way. Second,  this  table  arrangement  permits  the  fruit  to  be  packed 
directly  into  the  box  or  other  package  used.  As  all  deciduous  fruit 
is  damaged  by  handling,  the  machine  is  so  designed  that  such  injury 
is  reduced  to  an  absolute  minimum.  The  fruit  is  automatically  and 
evenly  distributed  over  each  packing  table  in  a  single  layer.  This 
feature  not  only  permits  of  an  unobstructed  view  of  each  apple  on 
the  table,  but  it  prevents  stem  punctures  and  other  bruises  which 
always  occur  when  apples  are  piled  on  top  of  one  another.  The 
partitions  which  divide  the  tables  are  adjustable,  which  allows 
the  packer  to  make  quick  and  accurate  minor  size-adjustments 
in  the  fruit  coming  to  his  table.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
gauges  expand  gradually  as  they  move  over  the  tables.  It  there- 
fore depends  upon  the  location  of  the  table  as  to  what  size  of 
apples  are  delivered  to  it,  so  moving  a  partition  is  equivalent  to 


288  THE  APPLE 

moving  that  section  of  the  table  forward  or  backward,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  this  effects  a  corresponding  change  in  the  size  of  the 
fruit  delivered  to  the  table  by  the  gauges. 

The  fruit  can  be  divided  between  the  tables  on  each  side  of  the 
machine  as  follows  :  Either  unit  of  tables  can  be  adjusted  to  receive 
all  the  fruit,  or  75  per  cent  can  be  delivered  to  the  unit  of  tables 
on  one  side  of  the  machine,  leaving  25  per  cent  for  the  unit  of 
tables  on  the  opposite  side  ;  or  50  per  cent  can  be  delivered  to 
each  unit  of  tables.  These  changes  can  be  made  in  a  few  seconds' 
time,  so  that  any  varying  condition  in  the  ratio  of  the  Fancy  grade 
to  the  Extra  Fancy  grade  can  be  provided  for,  thus  insuring  equal 
distribution  of  work  among  the  packers. 

Padding.  All  parts  of  the  machine  which  come  in  contact  with 
the  fruit  are  well  padded,  so  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  bruising 
or  other  injury.  The  sides  of  the  hopper  and  packing  tables  are 
padded  with  thick  wool  felt,  and  the  feeding  mechanism  and  gauges 
with  rubber.  The  bottoms  of  the  hopper  and  packing  tables  are 
made  of  the  best  quality  of  burlap,  which  experience  has  shown 
to  be  superior  to  canvas  or  any  other  material  because  it  permits 
dust  and  small  dirt  to  pass  through  and  away.  The  sanitary  condi- 
tion of  a  machine  needs  as  careful  attention  as  other  considerations. 

Power  required.  The  machine  is  very  light-running,  requiring 
less  than  one-half  horse  power  to  operate  it.  As  practically  all 
growers  have  a  power-spray  outfit,  the  machine  has  been  arranged 
especially  for  connection  with  any  ordinary  gasoline  engine  used 
for  operating  a  sprayer. 

Capacity.  The  feeding  mechanism  is  arranged  to  pass  four 
apples  to  the  gauges  at  each  operation.  The  average  number  of 
such  feeding  operations  per  minute  may  safely  be  placed  at  50. 
However,  conditions  must  govern  the  speed  at  which  the  machine 
is  operated.  Large  apples  take  a  slightly  longer  time  per  apple 
than  small  apples,  so  while  but  50  feeding  operations  per  minute 
may  be  required  for  a  large  variety  of  apples,  a  small  variety  like 
Jonathans  would  allow  much  faster  work.  By  taking  an  average 
feeding  speed  of  50  operations  per  minute,  at  four  apples  per 
operation,  exactly  200  apples  will  be  sorted  for  size  in  a  minute's 
time,  or  12,000  apples  per  hour.  This  is  equivalent  to  from  800 
to  1 200  boxes  per  ten-hour  day. 


GRADING  289 

While  the  capacity  of  this  machine  is  greater  than  what  is  re- 
quired by  the  average  commercial  grower,  it  is  always  well  to  have 
ample  capacity.  Experience  shows  that  best  results  are  obtained, 
especially  from  packers  hired  by  the  day,  by  setting  the  machine 
to  a  lively  pace  and  requiring  the  packers  to  follow  the  machine. 

The  Woods  grading  machine  and  how  it  works.  This  machine 
has  the  appearance  of  being  a  large  wheel  with  triangular  pockets 
or  attachments  fastened  to  the  edge  or  side  of  the  wheel,  some  of 
which  may  appear  to  be  opened  and  others  to  be  closed. 

The  wheel  is  44  inches  in  diameter.  The  center  or  hub  part  is 
a  large,  flat,  metal  disk  from  which  eight  arms  extend.  At  the 
outer  end  of  these  arms  the  wheel  is  bound  by  a  heavy  steel  rim. 
A  series  of  triangular  pockets  are  fastened  to  the  edge  of  this  steel 
rim,  each  pocket  having  a  hinged  side  also  attached  to  this  rim. 
The  metal  bearings  on  either  side  of  the  framework  of  the  machine 
support  the  wheel  at  its  center,  which  places  the  weight  and  oper- 
ation of  the  whole  grading  mechanism  on  one  center,  with  friction 
in  but  one  place. 

In  the  rotation  of  the  wheel  the  hinged  sides  of  the  triangular 
pockets  open  and  close  automatically.  Ascending,  and  passing 
under  the  hopper,  or  conveyer,  they  are  sufficiently  opened  to  re- 
ceive the  fruit  and  are  then  held  in  proper  position  by  small  wheels 
or  rollers.  These  small  wheels  or  rollers  are  adjusted  so  that  the 
hinged  sides  gradually  open  and  discharge  the  fruit  into  chutes 
leading  to  the  packer's  table.  The  position  of  these  sides  is  such 
that  after  having  discharged  their  fruit,  they  are  automatically  closed 
by  their  own  weight. 

We  will  now  assume  that  we  have  fruit  in  the  conveyer,  one 
piece  resting  on  the  wheel.  The  operator  starts  the  wheel,  and 
the  first  piece  of  fruit  is  caught  in  the  first  triangular  pocket,  the 
next  piece  of  fruit  follows  in  the  second  pocket,  and  so  on.  At 
the  first  chute  the  hinged  side  is  opened,  we  will  say,  2  inches. 
If  the  fruit  is  too  large  to  pass  through,  it  remains  in  the  pocket 
until  it  arrives  at  the  second  chute,  over  which  by  an  adjustment 
of  the  small  wheels  or  rollers  the  hinged  side  is  opened  from  j  inch 
to  2\  inches  wider,  or  as  required  by  the  sizes  of  the  grades,  and 
so  on  to  the  third  and  fourth  chutes.  All  fruit  over  the  fourth  size 
is  carried  to  the  end  table. 


290  THE  APPLE 

After  the  pocket  passes  the  chute  leading  to  the  end  table  it  is 
overbalanced  by  its  own  weight  and  position,  and  is  closed,  ready 
to  ascend  to  the  conveyer.  In  the  complete  operation  of  the 
machine  it  will  be  observed  that  there  are  no  springs,  belts,  chains, 
or  similar  machinery  —  only  small  adjustable  wheels  or  rollers,  and 
hinged,  automatically  operated  bottoms  to  the  triangular  pockets. 

The  perfectly  balanced  wheel  is  practically  operated  by  the  weight 
of  the  fruit.  All  the  grades  of  fruit,  except  the  culls,  are  at  the 
opposite  side  of  the  wheel  from  the  conveyer,  so  that  even  when 
the  fruit  is  of  medium  size,  the  unloading  side  of  the  wheel  is 
the  heaviest,  and  this  will  cause  the  wheel  to  revolve.  The  wheel, 
however,  is  under  the  absolute  control  of  the  operator  and  may  be 
started  or  stopped  by  the  hand  ;  it  may  also  be  controlled  by  the 
foot,  so  that  the  operator  may  use  both  hands  in  feeding  the  fruit 
from  the  conveyer  into  the  pockets.  Thus  the  use  and  cost  of 
motive  power  is  entirely  eliminated,  and  the  turning  of  the  machine 
by  hand  is  done  away  with.  In  the  operation  of  the  machine  as  de- 
scribed above,  the  largest  fruit  is  handled  as  gently  as  the  smallest, 
and  without  bruising,  as  every  piece  is  conveyed  or  carried  to  its 
proper  grade  as  gently  as  though  by  hand. 

In  grading  apples,  larger  holes  or  openings,  through  which  to 
pass  the  fruit,  are  required  than  for  peaches.  The  size  is  always 
determined,  regardless  of  shape,  with  strict  reference  to  cheek-to- 
cheek  diameter,  and  it  is  impossible  to  put  up  a  tier  pack  until  the 
fruit  has  been  so  sorted  or  graded.  The  pockets  on  the  large  wheel 
of  the  grader  form  equal-sided  triangles.  No  matter  what  the  shape 
of  the  fruit,  it  is  properly  graded  by  the  hinged-bottom  feature  of 
these  triangles.  The  corners  of  the  triangles  furnish  openings  for 
fruit  stems,  long  ends  of  fruit,  etc.,  and  at  the  same  time  the  largest 
space  in  the  pocket  will  catch  the  cheek  of  the  fruit,  which  deter- 
mines its  grade,  regardless  of  its  position  in  the  pocket,  that  is, 
whether  lengthwise,  crosswise,  or  endwise. 

Feeding.  The  fruit  is  emptied  into  a  hopper,  from  which  it  is 
introduced  into  an  inclined  conveyer.  Here  it  lies,  one  piece  behind 
another,  until  it  is  picked  up  by  the  cups  (or  pockets)  as  they  arrive 
at  the  point  directly  under  the  conveyer.  There  is  no  complicated 
machinery  to  control  the  feeding,  and  but  one  piece  of  fruit  is 
delivered  into  a  cup  or  pocket  at  a  time. 


GRADING  291 

Sizing.  The  sizing  is  accomplished  by  means  of  expanding 
hexagonal  cups  attached  to  metal  crosspieces,  which  are  fastened 
onto  the  rim  of  the  wheel.  In  a  single-column  machine  there  are 
16  of  these  expanding  cups,  and  in  a  double-column  machine  32. 
They  expand  over  each  chute  as  the  wheel  turns,  and  the  size  of 
the  expansion  or  opening  remains  the  same  the  entire  length  of 
each  subtrack  or  chute,  making  an  exact  sizing  or  grading  of  the 
fruit  for  that  particular  chute.  The  cups  are  constructed  of  three 
stationary  sides,  fastened  to  the  outer  ends  of  the  crosspieces,  and 
three  movable  sides  made  of  one  piece,  which  are  hinged  at  the  inside 
ends  of  the  crosspieces  and  taper  toward  the  bottom  of  the  cup, 
thus  forming  a  pocket  of  six  sides  and  measuring  the  same  distance 
across  in  any  direction.  Adjustable  subtracks  support  the  hinged 
sides  of  the  cup  in  the  proper  position  over  each  chute,  and  the  sub- 
tracks  are  attached  to  a  stationary  main  track  of  steel  by  thumb- 
screws. By  these  means  the  adjustment  or  expansion  of  the  cup 
is  easily  accomplished. 

As  the  cup  arrives  at  the  conveyer  the  hinged  side  is  carried 
onto  a  subtrack,  winch  is  so  adjusted  that  it  will  hold  the  cup  in 
position  to  let  through  the  smallest-sized  fruit.  The  cup  is  then 
carried  by  the  wheel  to  the  second  subtrack,  and  is  expanded 
I  inch,  or  whatever  is  necessary  for  the  next  grade  or  size  of 
fruit.  This  expansion  takes  place  as  the  hinged  sides  of  the  cup 
pass  from  one  subtrack  to  the  next,  over  the  entire  set  of  chutes. 
These  chutes  are  stationed  underneath  the  track  so  as  to  catch 
each  division  of  fruit,  giving  five  sizes  of  fruit  and  delivering  each 
size  separately  to  the  packing  tables. 

The  six  sides  of  the  cups  expand  equally,  thus  making  the  dis- 
tances across  the  pocket  the  same  in  any  direction.  It  can  be  readily 
seen  that  this  arrangement  gives  the  correct  cheek-to-cheek  grade 
of  fruit,  regardless  of  the  position  the  apple  takes  in  the  pocket. 

Adjustment.  ( )wing  to  the  irregular  shapes  and  sizes  of  apples, 
as  compared  with  peaches  and  other  fruits,  the  amount  of  expan- 
sion of  the  cups  required  will  differ  ;  but  this  is  accomplished  by 
adjusting  the  subtracks.  The  adjustment  is  a  simple  process  and 
is  made  by  merely  loosening  the  thumbscrews  and  moving  the  sub- 
tracks  forward  or  backward  the  desired  distance,  and  again  securely 
fastening  them  in  place  by  tightening  the  thumbscrews. 


292  THE  APPLE 

Packing  tables.  The  packing  tables  are  a  very  important  and 
practical  part  of  the  grading  outfit.  They  extend  6  feet  from  the 
chute  into  which  the  fruit  is  delivered  by  the  cups,  and  have  a 
separate  section  for  each  size  of  fruit.  Each  section  is  3  feet  wide 
at  the  outer  end,  where  the  packer  stands,  which  gives  ample  room 
for  four  packers  on  each  side  of  the  machine  and  one  or  two  at 
the  end  table. 

Sizes  and  grades.  The  machine  is  designed  to  grade  five  sizes, 
but  a  grading  of  only  three  sizes  can  be  secured  by  the  adjustment 
of  the  pockets  as  before  described.  On  the  two-  and  four-column 
machines  color  sorting  can  be  done  by  the  operator  at  the  convey- 
ers, by  feeding  the  light-colored  fruit  into  one  conveyer  and  the 
dark-colored  into  the  other,  without  picking  it  up.  Every  part  of 
the  machine  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  fruit  is  well  padded 
with  heavy  felt,  and  the  bottom  of  the  hopper  and  the  bottoms  of 
the  tables  are  of  canvas,  so  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  the  fruit 
being  bruised  or  otherwise  injured. 

Power.  The  machine  is  designed  to  be  run  by  foot  power, 
assisted  by  the  weight  of  the  fruit,  much  on  the  principle  of  the 
old-time  water  wheel.  However,  the  machine  can  be  arranged  to 
be  operated  by  any  other  power.  Many  other  grading  machines 
equally  as  valuable  are  in  general  use,  and  the  orchardist  is  urged 
to  study  them  carefully  before  purchasing. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 
PACKING 

Which  package  to  use.  In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  decided 
tendency  among  Eastern  fruit-growers  to  make  the  box  the  apple 
package,  as  is  universally  done  in  the  West.  This  has  resulted  in 
a  vigorous  controversy  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  box  and 
the  barrel. 

Fastidious  people  do  not  care  to  place  on  their  tables  an  imper- 
fect article,  and  no  apple  that  has  been  in  a  barrel  is  perfect.  It  is 
a  bruised  specimen,  although  good  methods  of  packing  the  barrels 
may  prevent  bruising  somewhat.  With  the  hard  winter  varieties 
the  bruising  is  not  serious,  and  with  highly  colored  apples  it  is  not 
so  noticeable,  but  with  both  soft  and  light-colored  varieties  every 
bruise  becomes  an  eyesore.  The  Fameuse,  the  yellow  Bellflower, 
the  Northern  Spy,  and  other  tender  apples  are  spoiled  by  being 
packed  in  barrels. 

Added  to  this  is  the  objection  that  the  barrel  is  not  attractive. 
With  the  general  trade  this  is  of  no  importance,  but  the  high-class 
retailers  recognize  the  sales  value  of  an  attractive  package.  The 
barrel  is  the  receptacle  for  the  grower  who  sells  his  apples  in  bulk 
to  the  commission  man,  and  who  does  not  have  the  time  or  the 
inclination  for  strict  sorting  and  grading.  To  such  men  quantity 
means  money,  —  the  more  barrels  the  more  money,  —  and  quality 
means  the  throwing  away  of  a  large  part  of  their  apples  and  the 
consequent  loss  of  so  much  money.  The  grower  who  approves  of 
the  box  idea  is  one  who  raises  apples  that  are  healthy  and  well- 
formed,  and  who  appreciates  the  possibilities  for  money-making  in 
catering  to  the  high-class  trade.  As  a  rule  the  "barrel  man"  does 
not  spray,  prune,  or  cultivate  as  carefully  as  does  the  "  box  man." 

It  is,  then,  not  the  intrinsic  merits  of  the  packages  but  the  type 
of  orcharding  and  the  variety  that  really  determine  which  package 
ought  to  be  used.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  apple  crop  in  the 
East  the  barrel  is  the  desirable  receptacle. 

293 


294 


THE  APPLE 


The  box  is  a  smaller  package,  and  the  pressure  required  to  secure 
tightness  is  not  so  great  as  with  the  barrel,  therefore,  as  already 
stated,  the  fruit  is  not  bruised  and  keeps  better.  Boxes  can  be  easily 
handled  by  the  retailer,  and  a  number  of  them  can  be  stacked  in 
a  small  space.  By  means  of  the  box  the  grower  gets  his  brand 
directly  before  the  consumer,  which  is  not  always  possible  with  the 
barrel.  The  box  should  be  used  only  for  the  best  apples  for  best 
trade.  Such  varieties  as  the  Northern  Spy,  Tompkins  County 
King,  Mcintosh,  Fameuse,  Ksopus,  Twenty  Ounce,  Wagener, 
Yellow  Newtown,  Jonathan,  Albemarle  Pippin,  York  Imperial,  and 
the  like  should,  if  possible,  be  marketed  in  the  box. 

In  the  following  list  an  attempt  is  made  to  separate  the  varieties 
into  box  or  barrel  stock,  the  classification  in  each  case  being  based 
on  the  quality  and  appearance  of  the  fruit.  Some  are  adapted  to 
both  styles  of  package. 


Box 

Barrel  or   Box 

Barrel 

Grimes 

Rome  Beauty 

Ben  Davis 

Jonathan 

Arkansas 

York  Imperial 

Winesap 

Baldwin 

Gano 

Stayman  Winesap 

Wealthy 

Willow 

Delicious 

Winter  Paradise 

Fallawater 

Yellow  Newtown 

Oldenburg 

Roxbury 

Yellow  Transparent 

Northwestern 

Akin 

Rhode  Island  Greening 

Mcintosh 

Alexander 

Northern  Spy 

Gilliflower 

King 

Hubbardston 

Fall  Pippin 

Fameuse 

Esopus 

Twenty  Ounce 

Wagener 

Albemarle  Pippin 

Box  Packing 

To    pack 

all   sizes   of    fruit    it    has  been 

found   necessary  in 

the  West  to 

use 

two 

sizes  of  boxes.    These  ; 

ire  the  Standard  and 

the  Special, 

with 

inside  dimensions  of  io| 

X  nj  X  1 8  in.  and 

10  x  II  X  20  in.,  respectively. 


PACKING 


295 


A  third  size  of  box  is  offered  for  sale  in  the  East.  It  conforms 
to  the  requirements  of  the  bill  to  regulate  the  size  of  barrels  and 
boxes  and  the  grading  of  fruit,  which  has  been  pending  before 
Congress  for  two  years.  This  bill  specifies  that  the  box  shall 
contain  2342  cubic  inches,  and  the  inside  dimensions  shall  be 
approximately  10J,  x  n\  X  19^  in.  A  few  other  sizes  are  sold  by 
manufacturers  in  the  East,  but  odd  sizes  should  be  avoided.  The 
boxes  are  delivered  in  the  shooks,  and  nailed  up  by  the  growers 
themselves. 

Box  material.  To  make  the  box  an  attractive  package  it  is 
necessary  to  get  clean,  bright  lumber  free  from  knots.    Spruce  and 


Fig.  130.    Boxes  for  apples 
Different  types  of  boxes  used  for  packing  apples.    (After  Cornell  University) 


pine  are  two  common  timbers  which  have  proved  very  satisfactory. 
The  best  boxes  are  made  of  one-piece  ends  |  inch  thick,  one-piece 
sides  I  inch  thick,  and  two-piece  tops  and  bottoms  from  -^  to 
j  inch  thick,  depending  upon  the  strength  of  the  material.  A 
slightly  cheaper  box,  and  yet  a  very  serviceable  one,  is  made  of  two- 
piece  ends  and  sides,  the  two  parts  being  united  with  a  Linderman 
joint  and  securely  glued.  If,  in  setting  up  the  box,  care  is  taken  to 
prevent  the  joints  of  sides  and  ends  from  coming  together,  the  box 
will  be  very  strong.  All  box  material  should  be  dressed,  at  least  on 
the  outside.  Boxes  are  usually  purchased  in  the  knocked-down  form 
and  are  made  up  when  desired,  the  price  ranging  from  $13.00  to 


296  THE  APPLE 

$18.00  per  hundred.  The  nails  should  be  cement-coated  to  prevent 
pulling  out,  and  of  the  fivepenny  or  sixpenny  size.  The  small 
cleat  used  in  nailing  down  the  ends  of  the  tops  and  bottoms  should 
be  soaked  before  using  to  prevent  splitting.  Four  nails  are  needed 
for  each  cleat,  and  four  at  each  end  of  the  sidepieces. 

Several  boxes  made  of  veneer  material  are  being  placed  on  the 
market.  All  that  have  come  under  our  observation  have  been  inferior 
in  appearance,  durability,  and  strength.  The  greatest  objection  is  to 
the  ends.  These  are  usually  composed  of  a  frame  of  ^-inch  material, 
to  one  side  of  which  is  nailed  a  thin  veneer.  These  frames  are  too 
light  to  hold  the  nails  for  the  tops,  bottoms,  and  sides,  and  will 
almost  invariably  split  at  some  point  during  the  nailing.  The  nails 
frequently  project  through  the  frame  enough  to  tear  the  hands  or 
clothing.  If  the  box  becomes  damp  the  veneering  is  apt  to  warp  out 
of  shape.  As  small  pieces  and  waste  material  are  utilized  in  these 
boxes,  they  are  usually  cheaper  than  those  made  of  sawed  lumber. 

Lining  paper.  To  help  protect  the  fruit  and  keep  it  clean,  the 
boxes  are  lined  with  white  paper,  two  sheets  being  required  for  each 
box.  For  the  standard  box  the  paper  should  be  \7'\x  26  in.,  and 
for  the  special  box,  iq|  x  26  in.  The  sheets  cost  from  Si. 2 5  to 
S2.50  per  thousand. 

The  paper  is  placed  so  that  one  sheet  covers  about  two  thirds  of 
the  bottom,  extends  up  the  side,  and  is  bent  back  over  the  outside 
of  the  box.  Another  sheet  is  placed  on  the  opposite  side  in  the 
same  manner,  overlapping  the  first  on  the  bottom.  When  the  box 
is  packed,  the  two  loose  ends  hanging  over  the  sides  are  brought 
together  so  that  they  overlap  on  top  of  the  fruit.  When  the  cover 
is  nailed  in  place,  the  thin  bottom  boards  spring  down,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  lining  paper  from  tearing,  a  fold  or  plait  is  made  in  it  at 
the  bottom.  Some  packers  secure  the  necessary  slack  by  jamming 
the  paper  into  the  crack  between  the  bottom  and  side  boards. 

Layer  paper.  The  general  practice  in  the  use  of  the  layer  paper 
is  to  place  one  sheet  on  the  bottom  and  one  on  the  top,  inside  the 
lining  paper.  In  some  cases,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  use  it  be- 
tween the  layers  of  apples  to  make  the  pack  of  the  right  height. 
Colored  manila  tagboard  is  used  for  layer  purposes,  the  size  being 
17.1,  X  1 1  in.  or  19J-  x  10.}  in.,  according  to  the  box,  and  the  cost 
about  $7.50  per  thousand  sheets. 


PACKING  297 

Wrapping  paper.  It  is  advisable  to  wrap  all  boxed  fruit.  The 
wrapper  protects  the  fruit  from  bruising,  makes  it  easier  to  pack, 
keeps  it  clean,  prevents  the  spread  of  decay  from  one  apple  to 
another,  and  makes  a  more  sanitary  package.  The  additional  cost 
of  wrapping  is  slight  in  proportion  to  the  benefits  derived  from  it. 
Unless  the  beginner  wraps  his  fruit,  he  will  have  great  difficulty 
in  making  a  firm,  tight  pack. 

The  wrapping  paper  is  of  light  manila,  smooth  or  glazed  on  one 
side  and  rough  on  the  other.  The  rough  side  is  placed  next  to  the 
fruit  and  readily  absorbs  any  moisture  that  may  be  on  the  surface  ; 
the  glazed  side  is  effective  in  preventing  the  entrance  of  moisture, 
dirt,  and  germs  from  the  outside.  The  size  of  the  wrapper  varies 
with  that  of  the  fruit.  For  very  large  fruit,  11  x  11  in.  is  used; 
for  medium  to  large  fruit,  10  x  10  in.  ;  and  for  small  stock, 
8  x  8  in.  or  9  x  9  in.  Strength  and  lightness  are  essential  to  a  good 
wrapping  paper.  Some  papers  are  so  tender  that  it  is  difficult 
to  avoid  tearing  them.  A  good  quality  should  be  purchased  for 
between  30  and  50  cents  per  thousand,  according  to  the  size.  Some 
growers  have  their  name  or  brand  stamped  on  each  wrapper. 

Wrapping  the  apple.  To  wrap  an  apple  smoothly  —  without  the 
waste  of  unnecessary  movements  —  requires  considerable  practice, 
although  the  operation  is  simple  in  itself.  Very  few  packers  use 
exactly  the  same  method  in  wrapping.  Some  fail  to  get  a  smooth, 
well-finished  effect  through  lack  of  attention  to  minor  details,  and 
others  waste  time  because  of  unnecessary  motions.  The  paper 
should  be  held  in  the  left  hand  with  the  thumb  and  little  finger 
pointing  toward  opposite  corners.  A  rubber  thumbstall,  which 
can  be  purchased  at  almost  any  drug  store,  is  worn  on  this  hand  to 
aid  in  picking  up  the  paper.  The  apple  is  dropped  or  thrown  with 
some  force  into  the  center  of  the  paper,  and  the  thumb  is  brought 
up  over  the  apple  as  far  as  possible,  and  with  it  the  corner  of  the 
paper.  If  the  fruit  is  to  be  packed  on  end,  it  should  be  dropped 
blossom  end  down,  for  the  stem  would  tear  the  paper ;  if  it  is  to 
be  packed  on  its  side,  it  should  be  dropped  onto  its  side.  The  next 
movement  is  to  gather  a  second  corner  of  the  paper  between  the 
extended  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  right  hand  and  fold  it  in 
with  a  sliding  forward  and  upward  motion.  The  fingers  of  the  left 
hand  now  sweep  upward  and  backward,  bringing  in  a  third  corner, 


298 


THE  APPLE 


which  leaves  the  apple  firmly  gripped  in  the  left  hand.  This  hand 
should  roll  the  fruit  against  the  curved  palm  and  fingers  of  the  right 
hand,  to  fold  in  the  fourth  and  last  corner.   The  apple  is  now  held 


The  four  steps  necessary  in  the  process  of  wrapping  an  apple  properly 
(After  Cornell  University) 


between  the  thumb  and  first  three  fingers  of  the  left  hand  in  the 
exact  position  in  which  it  should  be  placed  in  the  box.  This  wrap- 
per when  properly  made  leaves  no  loose  ends  and  can  be  rapidly 
executed. 


PACKING 


299 


Packing  table.  A  convenient  packing-  table  for  two  packers  can  be 
easily  built  by  any  grower.  The  sides  of  the  top  are  made  of  6-inch 
boards  4  feet  long.  The  end  boards  of  the  table  project  1  foot 
from  alternate  corners  (as  shown  in  Fig.  1 33)  to  afford  rests  for  one 
end  of  a  box,  thus  making  the  actual  size  of  the  table  3  x  4  ft.  The 
box  should  be  in  an  inclined  position  for  packing,  and  therefore  a 


Fig.  133.    A  good  packing  table  and  stand  for  properly  selecting  the  fruit 
for  box  packing.    (After  Cornell  University) 


rest  for  the  other  end  is  made  by  a  6-inch  board  parallel  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  projecting  end  board  and  fastened  to  the  bottom 
of  the  side  boards.  Shelves  on  which  to  place  wrapping  paper,  lin- 
ing paper,  or  layer  paper  are  often  built  beneath  the  table.  The  legs 
are  3  feet  high,  and  should  be  well  braced  for  orchard  work.  The 
top  of  the  table  should  be  covered  with  canvas  or  strong  burlap.    It 


300 


THE  APPLE 


is  a  good  plan  to  use  a  double  layer  of  canvas  and  have  the  upper 
piece  fastened  only  at  one  side,  to  enable  the  packer  readily  to 
shake  off  the  dirt  and  leaves  that  accumulate. 

The  position  of  the  packers  at  work  is  facing  the  boxes.  The 
paper  should  be  conveniently  held  at  their  left  in  a  small  tray 
hooked  over  the  edge  of  the  box.  The  fruit  is  at  their  right,  and  is 
selected  and  picked  up  in  the  right  hand.  A  left-handed  packer 
should  have  his  box  rest  on  the  reverse  corner,  which  will  bring 
his  left  side  to  the  table. 

Packing  the  box.  Before  placing  the  apples  on  the  packing  table, 
they  are  usually  graded  into  different  sizes.    The  workman  adapts 

the  pack  to  the  size  of  the 
apple  and  the  box.  In  the 
West  two  kinds  of  packs 
are  commonly  used  —  the 
diagonal  and  the  square  or 
straight.  Of  these  two  the 
diagonal  is  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred, for  it  permits  a  wider 
variation  in  the  size  of  the 
apples.  In  the  square  pack 
the  apples  must  be  fairly  uni- 
form, since  every  apple  rests 
against  the  center  of  an- 
other ;  in  the  diagonal  pack 
the  apple  rests  in  the  center  of  the  space  between  two  or  four 
others.  Hence,  when  the  top  of  the  box  is  nailed  down  a  certain 
amount  of  pressing  could  take  place  in  the  diagonal  pack  without 
bruising  the  fruit,  whereas  only  a  slight  pressing  would  bruise  the 
fruit  in  the  square  pack.  With  a  certain  few  sizes  of  apples  it  is 
necessary  to  use  the  square  pack. 

The  diagonal  pack  shown  at  the  right  in  Fig.  1 34  is  known  as 
the  3-2  pack,  and  the  box  at  the  left  is  called  the  2-2  pack,  the 
figures  referring  to  the  number  of  apples  in  the  cross  rows.  The 
packs  are  further  distinguished  by  the  number  of  apples  in  the  rows 
running  lengthwise.  The  rows  in  the  2-2  pack  may  be  of  equal 
length,  or  two  of  them  may  each  contain  one  apple  more  than 
the  others.    Thus,  to  describe  the  pack  more  fully  one  would  say 


Starting  a  2-2  d 
onal  pack 


Starting  a  3-2  diag 
onal  pack 


[34.    A  Northwest  Special  box 


PACKING 


301 


2-2,  6-6,  or  2-2,  6-j,  indicating  that  in  each  layer  there  are,  in  the 
first  instance,  4  rows  with  6  apples  in  each  row,  making  a  total 
of  24  ;  and  in  the  second  instance,  4  rows,  two  of  which  contain 
6  apples  and  two  7,  making  a  total  of  26. 

To  start  the  2-2  pack,  place  the  first  apple  in  one  of  the  lower 
corners  of  the  box.  The  second  apple  should  be  placed  about  mid- 
way between  the  first  apple  and  the  opposite  side.  The  third  should 
be  placed  against  the  first  and  the  second,  and  the  fourth  against 
the  second  and  the  side  of  the  box,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1 34.  These  first 


BOX-PACKING  TABLE 


Diameter 

Si  VI  E  01 

How 

Number  of 

Number 

Number  of 

B(  >\ 

of  Fruit 

Pack 

PACKED 

Apples  per  Row 

of  Layers 

Appi  es  in  Box 

2|  in. 

3-2  diag. 

flat 

7-7 

5 

A\ 

'75 

Special 

2|  in. 

3-2  diag. 

flat 

7-6 

5 

42 

>63 

Standard 

2f  in. 

3-2  diag. 

flat 

6-6 

5 

41 

150 

Standard 

2|in. 

3-2  diag. 

flat 

6-6 

5 

4, 

150 

Special 

z\  in. 

3-2  diag. 

flat 

5-5 

5 

4 

125 

Standard 

3    in- 

2-2  diag. 

side 

7-7 

4 

3  \ 

1 12 

Special 

3i  in- 

2-2  diag. 

side 

7-7 

4 

3s 

112 

Special 

3i  in- 

2-2  diag. 

side 

7-6 

4 

3i 

104 

Standard 

3i  in- 

2-2  diag. 

side 

6-6 

4 

3i 

96 

Standard 

3i  »n. 

2-2  diag. 

flat 

6-6 

4 

32 

96 

Standard 

3lin- 

2-2  diag. 

flat 

5-5 

4 

32 

So 

Standard 

3i  in- 

2-2  diag. 

flat 

5-4 

4 

3  J 

72 

Standard 

3lin- 

2-2  diag. 

flat 

4-4 

4 

32 

64 

Standard 

3|in. 

2-2  diag. 

flat 

4-3 

4 

3 

56 

Standard 

3f  in- 

3  straight 

side 

6-6 

3 

3 

54 

Special 

3  J  in- 

3  straight 

side 

5-5 

3 

3 

45 

Standard 

four  apples  should  be  carefully  placed  and  the  rest  of  the  layer  will 
pack  easily.  In  starting  the  second  layer,  place  the  first  apple  in 
the  corner  space  nearest  to  the  second  apple  of  the  first  layer. 
The  3-2  pack  is  started  by  placing  an  apple  in  each  lower  corner 
and  one  midway  between  them.  In  the  two  spaces  between  these 
three  apples  the  fourth  and  fifth  apples  are  placed.  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  apples  in  each  row  be  kept  tight  end- 
ways. A  good  test  of  this  is  to  set  the  box  on  end  after  the  first 
layer  is  in  place.  If  the  fruit  falls  out  it  has  not  been  packed  tightly 
enough.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to  get  the  rows  straight  both 
lengthwise  and  diagonally.    A  carelessly  packed  box  will  rarely  sell 


I 

rtt-P 

rfcrP 

Standard  box,  -2  apples 


Standard  box,  So  apples  Special  box,  104  apples 


Standard  box,  56  apples  Special  box,  63  apples 


°o°o 

rrCr 

CrGr 
CrG 

(My 

OOO 
OQO 
OOO 
OOO 
OOO 
OOO 
OOO 

o°o° 
o°o° 

Standard  box,  64  apple 


o 

o 


Wo 


o 


Standard  box,  1 50  apples  Standardbox,  i6oapples  Standardbox.  id^apples 

Fig.  135.    Types  of  Special  and  Standard  Northwest  boxes 


302 


OOOQO 
OOOOO 

ooooo 

OOOOO 
OOQO 

.0000 

QQOOQ 


175  apples 


1  So  apples 


225  apples 


oooo 

0000 

OOQQ 

ooqp 
0000 
0000 
000c 


41  apples 


°o°cP 


to 

o4>b 


[12  apples 

13S  apples 

144  apples 

ouo 

OOOOO 
OOOOO 
OOOOO 

oGo° 
o°0 
o°o° 

45  apples 
Fig.  136.    Northwest  Standard  boxes 


4S  apples 


3°3 


304  THE  APPLE 

for  enough  to  pay  for  the  expense  of  packing,  so  poor  will  be  its 
appearance  on  the  market  in  comparison  with  well-packed  fruit. 

All  apples  under  3  inches  in  diameter  are  packed  flat ;  those 
from  3  to  3 1  inches  are  packed  on  the  side  ;  those  from  3]  to 
3 1  inches  flat;  and  all  above  3|  inches  on  the  side.    The  3-inch 


First  and  third  layers  Second  and  fourth  layers 

2-2  diagonal  pack,  four  layers,  96  apples 


First  and  third  layers  Second  and  fourth  layers 

2-2  diagonal  pack,  four  layers,  88  apples 


First  and  third  layers  Second  and  fourth  layers 

3-2  pack,  five  layers,  4-2  tiers,  188  apples.    Reverse  layers  will  give  187  apples 

Fig.  137.    Northwest  Special  boxes 

apple  is  an  extremely  awkward  size  to  pack  in  either  box,  but  if 
necessary  it  can  be  put  in  the  Special  size.  In  practice  it  is  custo- 
mary to  grade  the  fruit  with  variations  up  to  ^  inch  ;  therefore  the 
3-inch  fruit  may  be  placed  with  the  2^-inch  or  3i-inch  grades.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  smaller  apples  may  be  packed  in  either  box, 
but  the  larger  ones  will  usually  pack  well  in  only  one  size.  This 
shows  the  necessity  of  having  both  sizes  on  hand. 


PACKING 


305 


The  bulge.  In  packing,  it  is  not  difficult  to  make  the  ends  of  the 
box  come  out  right  at  the  top,  but  to  secure  the  proper  bulge  at 
the  center,  which  should  be  about  1  \  inches,  is  not  so  easy.  The 
packer  should  begin  the  bulge  with  the  first  or  second  layer,  and 
may  proceed  in  several  ways.  A  common  way  is  to  choose  for  the 
center  of  the  box  apples  which  are  a  little  larger  or  thicker  than 
those  at  the  ends.  In  the  case  of  flat  apples,  they  may  be  packed 
bottom  down  at  the  ends  of  the  box  and  on  their  side  at  the  center. 
After  a  little  practice  this  phase  of  the  packing  will  cause  no  trouble. 


138.    Apples  wrapped  in  paper  and  packed  in  boxes 
Four  methods  of  packing.   (After  Cornell  University) 


When  the  top  of  the  box  is  nailed  on,  a  bulge  of  i£  inches  at 
the  center  gives  |  inch  on  both  top  and  bottom,  which  acts  as  a 
spring  to  take  up  any  slack  or  shrinkage  during  transportation. 
When  the  boxes  are  piled  up  they  are  placed  on  the  side,  where 
there  is  no  bulge,  and  thus  no  bruising  can  result  from  the  weight 
of  one  box  on  another. 

The  box  press.  After  the  box  is  packed,  it  is  taken  to  the  press. 
A  box  press  can  be  made  in  various  ways,  the  essential  points  of 
construction  being  ( I )  to  rest  the  clamps  on  the  ends,  so  that  when 
the  top  is  nailed  down  the  bottom  is  free  to  bulge  ;  (2)  to  catch  and 
press  down  the  top  pieces  from  the  ends  so  that  a  minimum  amount 
of  bruising:  will  result. 


306 


THE  APPLE 


A  simple  and  serviceable  press  can  easily  be  made  at  home. 
The  four  legs  are  2  x  4's  cut  2\  feet  long.  The  bed  piece  is  a 
2-inch  plank  of  hardwood  4  feet  long  and  1  foot  wide.  The  cross 
cleats  are  arranged  to  accommodate  both  the  standard  and  special 


Fig.  139.    A  homemade  box  press 

7,  cover  boards  to  table  (length  of  table,  64  inches) ;  2,  side  board  to  table;  3,  uprights  for 
attachment  of  levers  j  and  9;  4,  legs  of  table,  2SA  inches  long,  i\  inches  square  (all  the  arms, 
legs,  and  levers  of  the  press  may  be  made  of  ijx  i2  in.  material) ;  3,  levers,  27  inches  long; 
6,  upright  arms,  32  inches  long;  7,  steel  springs  (small  screen  door  springs  may  be  used) ; 

8,  spring  attached  to  upright  arm  6  and  support  3 ;  9,  foot  lever,  bolted  to  uprights  3  at  back, 
and  working  with  catch  plate  and  ratchet  in  front  (it  is  fastened  to  plate  13) ;  10,  brace  for 
legs  and  lower  support  for  uprights  (3  inches  from  ground) ;  //,  horseshoe  plate  for  grip- 
ping box  cleats  and  cover;  12,  iron  plates  bolted  to  levers  5,  with  large  holes  in  projecting 
ends,  allowing  the  bolts  ib  to  slide  freely;  13,  lower  plate  under  lever  9,  to  which  it  is 
bolted  loosely,  with  large  holes  in  each  end  for  free  play  for  bolts  /6 ;  14,  side  plate  joining 
lever  j  and  arm  6  (loose  joint) ;  15,  iron  ratchet  to  engage  plate  on  the  front  lever  9;  16, 
5-inch  bolts,  2J  inches  long,  working  loosely  in  the  holes  in  the  plates  12  and  13;  17,  three 
small  pulleys  for  rope  attached  to  arms  6;  18,  strong  |-inch  cord  that  will  not  stretch;  iq, 
spanner  running  parallel  with  side;  20,  crosspieces,  providing  support  for  box;  21,  grooves 
for  holding  box  in  place  (they  are  a  trifle  over  iS  inches  apart).    (After  Cornell  University) 


boxes,  the  two  inner  cleats  being  about  1 8  inches  apart  and  the  two 
outer  ones  20  inches.  This  allows  the  boxes  to  project  over  the 
cleats  I  inch  at  each  end.  The  iron  clamps  may  be  made  by  any 
blacksmith,  and  should  pass  through  the  lower  plank,  to  which  they 


Fig.  140.    Box  labels 

A  few  of  the  best  box  labels  used  on  Western  fruit.    One  of  the  modern  ways  by  which  the 
West  has  advertised  its  fruit 


3°7 


308  THE  APPLE 

are  attached  by  means  of  an  iron  pin  inserted  through  a  hole  in 
the  plank  and  clamp.  It  is  well  to  have  several  holes  at  half-inch 
intervals  in  the  clamps,  to  enable  the  operator  to  adjust  them  to  the 
proper  height  for  any  box.  The  coil  springs  throw  the  plank  up 
and  loosen  the  clamps  when  the  pressure  is  released.  When  the 
pressure  is  applied  to  the  ends  of  the  covers,  the  bulge  is  distributed 
about  equally  between  bottom  and  top.  Four  nails  driven  through 
each  cleat  are  sufficient  to  hold  the  cover  in  place. 

Labeling.  An  attractive  label  pasted  on  the  end  of  the  box 
aids  materially  in  marketing  the  product  and,  if  used  persistently, 
becomes  a  valuable  advertising  agent.  The  label  should  not  be  of 
the  gaudy  circus-poster  style,  but  should  give  such  information  as 
the  grower's  name,  the  variety  of  fruit,  and  the  number  of  apples 
in  the  box.  To  guard  against  mistakes  the  number  of  apples  and 
the  other  items  required  by  the  Sulzer  law  should  be  marked  on 
the  box  by  the  packer  before  the  cover  is  nailed  in  place. 

Barrel  Packing 

The  standard  barrel.  Congress  has  recently  passed  a  much- 
needed  measure  regulating  the  size  of  apple  barrels  for  all  states. 
It  specifies  that  the  length  of  stave  shall  be  28 J  inches,  the  diam- 
eter of  head  \j\  inches,  the  distance  between  heads  26  inches, 
and  the  outside  circumference  of  the  bulge  64  inches.  All  barrels 
not  coming  up  to  this  standard  must  be  so  marked.  The  act  also 
provides  for  three  standard  grades  of  apples  of  minimum  sizes  of 
2  J,  2 J,  and  2  inches,  respectively.  The  fruit  in  any  of  these  grades 
must  be  sound,  well-colored,  and  of  a  normal  shape.  Any  barrel 
marked  Standard  Grade  must  also  be  plainly  marked  with  the 
minimum  size  of  the  fruit,  the  name  of  the  variety,  the  locality  in 
which  it  was  grown,  and  the  name  of  the  grower  or  packer.  This 
act  became  effective  July  1,  191 3.  The  barrel  material  required 
should  be  fairly  free  from  knots  and  cross  grain.  A  hard,  tough 
wood  like  elm  makes  the  best  barrels,  but  much  latitude  may  be 
followed  in  the  choice  of  material. 

Packing  table.  A  table  for  barrel  packing  differs  from  that  used 
in  box  work  and  may  be  constructed  as  follows.  The  size  is  6  feet 
long  by  4  feet  wide,  with  sides  8  inches  high.    In  the  bottom  of 


PACKING  309 

the  bed  are  slats  1  inch  square  spaced  1  inch  apart.  The  legs  of 
the  lower  end  of  the  table  are  39  inches  high,  to  allow  the  bottom 
of  the  bed  to  clear  the  top  of  the  barrel,  and  the  legs  at  the  upper 
end  are  45  inches  high,  giving  a  6-inch  pitch  to  the  table.  The 
apples  can  be  easily  inspected  as  they  roll  into  the  apron,  and  im- 
perfect ones  thrown  out.  When  the  apron  is  filled,  it  should  be 
slowly  lowered  into  the  barrel  without  bruising  the  fruit.  This 
packing  table  may  be  mounted  on  wheels  for  use  in  the  orchard, 
or  may  be  built  larger,  with  two  funnels,  allowing  two  barrels  to 
be  filled  at  once. 

To  face  a  barrel  properly  requires  some  skill  and  care.  The  real 
object  of  facing  is  to  give  the  barrel  an  attractive  appearance  when 
opened  and  not,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  to  deceive  the  purchaser. 
The  fruit  used  for  facing  should  represent,  so  far  as  size  is  con- 
cerned, the  general  run  of  the  whole  barrel.  One  reason  for  not 
picking  out  the  largest  apples  for  facers  is  that  these  are  often 
poorly  colored  and  do  not  make  so  good  an  appearance  as  the 
medium-sized  specimens.  All  the  face  apples  should  be  of  uniform 
size  and  well  colored.  Beginning  on  the  outer  edge,  they  should 
be  arranged  stem  down  in  concentric  circles  until  the  head  is  cov- 
ered. Care  should  be  taken  to  select  fruit  that  will  fill  the  circles 
without  leaving  spaces  or  requiring  any  to  be  placed  on  edge. 
When  the  center  is  reached,  it  should  be  filled  with  one,  three,  or 
four  apples.  Never  use  an  apple  that  is  larger  or  smaller  than  the 
others  to  fill  out  the  center  space,  for  this  would  spoil  the  looks  of 
the  whole  face.  Of  apples  measuring  from  3  to  3-|  inches  in  di- 
ameter, the  outer  circle  will  require  15,  the  second  ring  9,  and  the 
center  3.  The  next  smaller  size  that  can  be  used  measures  from 
2'\  to  2 1  inches  in  diameter.  It  will  take  17  of  these  to  fill  the 
outer  circle,  1 1  to  fill  the  second,  and  4  to  fill  the  center.  A  size 
of  fruit  intermediate  between  these  two  could  not  be  used.  Many 
growers  face  all  their  barrels  with  these  two  sizes'. 

If  the  fruit  runs  smaller  than  either  of  these  two  sizes,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  select  that  size  which  will  make  three  circles  and  leave 
the  center  to  be  filled  with  one  apple.  In  the  case  of  very  large 
apples,  like  the  Fallawater,  they  may  be  arranged  in  two  circles 
with  one  apple  in  the  center.  Only  one  layer  of  facers  is  necessary, 
but  the  packer  should  place  over  the  interspaces  of  this  layer  a  few 


3io 


THE  APPLE 


fruits  with  their  colored  sides  down,  so  that  when  the  barrel  is  opened 
a  solid  mass  of  color  will  greet  the  eye. 

Filling  and  tailing.  The  filling  of  the  barrel  should  be  accom- 
panied by  vigorous  shaking  after  every  half  bushel  of  fruit  has 
been  added.  This  settles  the  fruit  into  its  permanent  place,  so  that 
there  will  be  no  loosening  and  rattling  after  the  barrel  is  packed. 
When  the  barrel  is  nearly  filled,  the  upper  layer  must  be  arranged 
by  hand  to  form  a  level  surface  against  which  the  head  may  press. 
This  operation  is  known  as  "  tailing."    The  barrel  should  be  filled 


;,  and  packing 
In  the  orchard  of  Edward  Van  Alystine  at  Kinderhook,  New  Vork 


one  inch  or  more  above  the  chime  to  allow  for  shrinkage  and  to 
tighten  the  fruit  when  the  head  is  pressed  into  position. 

Papering.  A  circle  of  plain  or  white  lace  paper  placed  in  the 
bottom  of  a  barrel  before  the  facers  are  laid  will  greatly  increase 
its  attractiveness.  If,  in  addition,  a  layer  of  corrugated  paper  or 
an  excelsior  pad  is  placed  under  each  head,  the  bruising  of  the 
fruit  will  be  much  lessened.  Lace  paper  costs  $5.00  per  thousand 
and  corrugated  paper  $7.00,  small  items  that  greatly  increase  the 
effectiveness  of  the  package  and  often  result  in  attracting  customers 
and  retaining  them. 


PLATFOHM 
n:  ir. 


Unpacked 
Fruit 


Vnpa eked 
Fruit 


Packed 

Fruit 


filing 

PirHS 


\G"f"9\  \0ralh"'\       & 

I    ;     Box  hum 

@   @   @   @   @   @ 


be 

ox-making 

Boom 


n:          w.         W.         w,         n:         if. 
60' 


■--40'--- 
w.  ,  IV. 


Unpacked 
Fruit 


Unpacked 
Fruit 


PTg- 

Nailing  Press 


Packed 
t 


Y^<lin,T.\         Lj 

"ss 

y  '.Box  Lt, 
l_J         an 


Nailin,/  Press  .- -- 


tmbcr 
d 

Box-makin 
Room 


OffieJm.    ^i 


w.  w. 


W.  n: 


Fig.  142.    Floor  plans  of  packing  houses 
Two  plans  of  houses  used  in  Ontario.    (After  Department  of  Agriculture,  Ontario,  Canada) 


3" 


312  THE  APPLE 

The  barrel  press.  Several  types  of  screw  and  lever  presses 
are  on  the  market.  The  requisites  of  a  good  press  are  strength, 
durability,  power,  simplicity,  and  compactness.  The  lever  presses 
are  more  rapid  than  the  screw  type,  which  is  being  used  less  and 
less.  The  iron  circle  used  on  some  presses  to  force  the  head  into 
place  is  often  in  the  way  of  the  operator ;  a  single  wooden  block 
extending  crosswise  of  the  head  is  far  more  convenient.  If  the 
press  has  to  be  carried  about  the  orchard  frequently,  it  may  be  made 
much  lighter  by  turning  up  the  bottoms  of  the  iron  uprights  in 
the  form  of  a  hook  to  clamp  under  the  edge  of  the  barrel,  and 
discarding  the  heavy  base. 

Labeling.  Neat  and  attractive  labels  should  be  placed  on  each 
end  of  the  barrel,  the  requirements  being  the  same  as  for  boxes. 

Comparative  cost  of  boxes  and  barrels.  In  comparing  the  cost 
of  the  two  packages,  there  are  three  points  to  be  considered  :  ( i )  the 
actual  cost  of  the  package  itself;  (2)  the  cost  of  filling  it;  and 
(3)  the  cost  of  handling  the  package  from  the  orchard  to  the  con- 
sumer. Compared  from  these  points  of  view,  there  is  found  a  slight 
difference  in  favor  of  the  barrel.  In  the  East  the  cost  of  a  box 
varies  between  10  and  15  cents,  and  the  cost  of  a  barrel  between 
25  and  35  cents.  Three  boxes,  which  together  will  hold  as  much 
as  one  barrel,  cost  between  30  and  45  cents,  leaving  a  margin 
of  from  5  to  10  cents  in  favor  of  the  barrel.  When  the  apple 
crop  calls  for  a  thousand  or  more  barrels  the  saving  becomes 
a  considerable  item. 

The  approximate  cost  of  packing  a  box  and  a  barrel  of  apples 
is  shown  by  the  following  figures  : 

Box  Barrel 

Box #0.10  to  $0.15         Barrel $0.251050.35 

Paper .05^  Cushion  heads  .     .      .                       .04 

Packing 05  to      .06         Packing .09 

Box  making  ...  .01          Nailing .01 

Wiping  and  grading  .05         Picking .22 

Hauling    ....  .03  Wiping  and  grading   .                       .05 

Nailing     ....  .01  Orchard  hauling     .     .                       .03 

Orchard  hauling      .  .01  Help  in  packing  house                       .01 

Picking     ....  .07         Hauling .03 

Help  in  packing  house  .01             Total $0.73  to  $0.83 

Total     ....  $0.39!  to  $0.45.1 


PACKING  313 

Compared  on  the  basis  of  equal  quantity  the  relative  costs  of 
filling  the  two  packages  and  handling  them  are  from  73  to  83  cents 
for  the  barrel  and  from  $l.l8|  to  $1.36^  for  three  boxes.  It 
takes  longer  to  fill  a  box  than  it  does  to  pack  a  barrel,  for  a  higher 
degree  of  skill  is  necessary,  as  will  be  shown  later.  It  is  likely, 
therefore,  that  four  packers  and  graders  will  in  a  specified  time 
put  up  a  fourth  or  perhaps  a  third  more  apples  in  barrels  than 
in  boxes. 

In  transportation  and  handling,  there  is  a  slight  saving  in  favor 
of  the  barrel,  which  can  be  handled  by  one  man  in  about  the  same 
time  that  is  required  to  handle  half  the  quantity  of  fruit  in  boxes. 
So,  too,  in  loading  onto  cars  and  steamships,  and  in  handling 
on  docks,  in  auction  rooms  and  warehouses,  the  barrel  involves 
less  labor. 

Most  men  would  much  prefer  to  handle  boxes  than  barrels, 
because  boxes  are  much  lighter,  requiring  less  effort  or  strength 
on  the  part  of  the  laborer.  Where  the  boxes  are  particularly 
smooth  they  do  not  offer  the  hand  as  good  a  hold  as  do  the  ends 
of  barrels,  with  their  protruding  parts. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

MARKETING 

General  conditions.  During  the  year  191 2  probably  40,000,000 
barrels  of  apples  were  ready  for  market.  It  seemed  that  every  apple- 
producing  section  in  the  United  States  had  an  exceptionally  large 
crop.  This  was  a  condition  that  does  not  frequently  occur.  A  great 
many  of  these  sections  grow  ordinary  varieties  of  apples,  generally 
of  poor  to  fair  grade  both  as  to  edibility  and  keeping  quality  ;  such 
fruit  will  sell  for  enough  at  home  to  justify  harvesting,  but  will  not 
bring  enough  to  pay  for  harvesting,  grading,  packing,  and  freight- 
ing, and  leave  a  profit  to  the  orchardist.  Some  of  these  districts 
would,  therefore,  in  years  of  large  yields  cause  low  prices  to  prevail, 
and  for  a  certain  time  would  not  offer  a  profitable  market  for  high- 
grade  goods.  If  any  of  these  districts  should  produce  a  light  crop 
of  poor-quality  apples,  the  surrounding  sections  would  afford  a 
market  for  apples  of  good  quality  at  prices  high  enough  not  only 
to  justify  the  expense  of  growing  and  marketing  the  crop  but  to 
yield  a  good  profit.  In  seasons  when  certain  localities  produce  short 
crops  of  apples,  the  waste  in  sections  producing  heavy  crops  is 
greater  than  usual  because  much  of  the  fruit  is  too  poor  to  justify 
shipment.    Therefore,  correspondingly  better  prices  prevail. 

Very  little  effort  to  further  the  sale  of  apples  has  been  made  by 
growers.  The  West  until  recently  had  only  light  crops,  and  gener- 
ally shipped  all  its  product  to  a  few  large  cities,  such  as  Chicago, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston,  which  offered  satisfactory 
prices.  The  crop  of  191 2  was  the  largest  yet  harvested,  and  as 
new  markets  were  not  looked  up,  shipments  to  the  large  cities  were 
in  excess  of  the  demand,  with  the  result  that  the  apple  market  was 
depressed  and  prices  were  very  low.  All  the  surrounding  towns 
followed  the  lead  of  the  large  cities,  and  it  was  impossible  anywhere 
to  receive  good  prices  for  the  apples.  A  little  planning  in  regard 
to  wider  distribution  miirht  have  averted  this  slutting  of  the  market. 


MARKETING 


315 


More  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  organized  selling.  A 
properly  centralized  apple  organization  patterned  after  the  Orange 
Growers'  Association  in  California  and  other  similiar  ones,  to  help 
regulate  shipments  of  apples  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  markets, 
is  the  paramount  need. 

Proper  advertising  and  education  are  also  vitally  important.  Can- 
not the  business  principles  utilized  by  some  of  our  most  successful 
manufacturing  houses  be  applied  ?  Various  breakfast  foods  and 
brands  of  canned  goods  have  attained  great  success  by  their  exten- 
sive advertising.  In  many  cases  educational  receipts  for  cooking 
the  product  have  been  included  in  the  package.  Why  not  receipts 
for  cooking  the  apple  ? 

Some  legislation  is  needed  to  adjust  the  charges  of  commission 
man,  jobber,  retailer,  railroads,  and  all  others  handling  the  apple 
between  the  grower  and  the  consumer  —  perhaps  regulations  fixing 
the  percentage  each  may  charge.  It  now  costs  too  much  to  get  the 
apple  from  the  grower  to  the  consumer,  thereby  making  the  price 
to  the  consumer  much  greater  than  it  should  be.  The  consumer 
often  pays  $3.00  per  box  for  first-grade  apples  for  which  the  grower 
has  received  only  from  80  to  90  cents.  Where  medium  or  second- 
grade  apples  are  sold  for  $2.25  the  grower  often  receives  only 
between  60  and  65  cents. 

The  following  table  will  serve  to  illustrate  where  the  difference 
goes  between  what  the  consumer  pays  and  what  the  grower  receives. 


First-grade  Apples 


Second-grade  Appi.i 


Retailer  sells  for    .... 

Grower  gets 

Association  or  agent  gets 
Railroad  gets      .... 
Commission  man  gets    . 
Retailer  gets 


.80,  or  27  percent 
.ro,  or  3  per  cent 
.50,  or  17  per  cent 
.25,  or  8  per  cent 
1.35,  or  45  per  cent 


.60,  or  27  per  cent 
.07,  or  3  per  cent 
.43,  or  19  per  cent 
.25, or  1 1  per  cent 
.90,  or  40  per  cent 


In  both  cases  the  consumer  pays  275  per  cent  more  than  the 
grower  gets,  this  condition  being  caused  by  the  demands  of  the 
retailer  for  large,  unreasonable  profits.  Public  sentiment  created 
by  proper  advertisement  and  education  could  be  so  aroused  that  the 
retail  prices  of  apples  would  be  brought  down  to  a  reasonable  rate 
which  would  still  give  a  fair  profit  to  all. 


3i6 


THE  APPLE 


Production  in  the  United  States.  The  total  production  of  apples 
in  the  United  States  for  191 2  was  approximately  38,3 10,000  barrels. 
This  yield  was  divided  among  the  different  fruit  sections  as  follows  : 

1.  New  York,  6,900,000  barrels,  being  about  18  per  cent  of  the 
total  yield. 

2.  The  district  comprising  the  southern  Piedmont  region,  West 
Virginia,  Virginia,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  5,900,000 
barrels,  being  about  15.4  per  cent  of  the  total  yield. 


Fig. 


restern  New  York  apple  belt 


Showing  the  principal  shipping  points.   This  fruit  region  produced  more  apples  in  1909  than 

Oregon,  Washington,  and  California  combined,  more  than  any  two  states  combined  with 

the  exception  of  Michigan,  or  Pennsylvania,  and  Missouri,  and  more  than  any  one  even  of 

these  three 

3.  The  West  (California,  Oregon,  Washington,  Colorado,  Utah, 
Idaho,  and  Montana),  4,425,000  barrels,  being  about  1 1.5  percent 
of  the  total  yield. 

4.  New  England,  3,060,000  barrels,  or  about  8  per  cent  of  the 
total  yield. 

5.  Pennsylvania,  2,100,000  barrels,  or  5.7  per  cent  of  the  total. 

6.  The  major  part  of  the  remaining  yield  was  produced  in  Ar- 
kansas, Kansas,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin, 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio. 

These  yields  did  not  differ  materially  from  those  of  the  preceding 
year  (191  1),  although  the  total  crop  of  191 2  was  about  2,500,000 
bands  larger  than  that  of  the  preceding  year.  In  1902  the  total 
yield  was  46,625,000  barrels;  in  1903,  about  42,626,000;  and 
in  1904,  about  45,360,000.  In  1900  the  total  number  of  barrels 
was  63,780,955,  and  in  1890  it  was  52,038,432. 


MARKETING  317 

According  to  the  census  of  19 10  the  following  facts  concerning 
apple  growing  are  brought  forth  : 

Decrease  in  number  of  trees  of  bearing  age.  At  the  census  of 
1900,  taken  as  of  June  I,  there  were  reported  201,794,000  apple 
trees  of  bearing  age,  against  15  1,323,000  trees  in  19 10  (census  taken 
as  of  April  15),  a  decrease  of  50,471,000  trees,  or  33.4  per  cent. 

In  1 9 10  there  were  2, 980,398  farms  reporting  the  growing  of  apple 
trees,  or  46.8  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  farms  in  the  United 
States.   The  average  number  of  trees  per  farm  as  reported  is  5  1 . 

No  figures  were  given  in  1900  to  show  the  number  of  farms 
reporting,  neither  did  the  returns  of  the  1900  census  specify  the 
number  of  trees  under  bearing  age.  In  19 10,  however,  1,498,746 
farms,  or  23.6  per  cent  of  the  total,  had  65,792,000  trees  not  of 
bearing  age,  or  an  average  of  44  per  farm. 

The  present  census  shows  that  in  1909  there  were  produced  in 
the  United  States  147,522,000  bushels  of  apples,  having  a  total 
value  of  $83,231,000.  The  production  at  that  time  was  a  little 
less  than  it  was  ten  years  previously,  when  175,397,000  bushels 
were  gathered.  The  reports  of  the  1900  census  give  no  information 
as  to  the  value  of  apples. 

Number  of  apple  trees  and  production  by  states.  In  19 10  almost 
25  per  cent  of  all  apple  trees  of  bearing  age  in  the  United  States 
were  in  Missouri,  New  York,  and  Illinois.  The  number  of  trees 
of  bearing  age  in  Missouri  at  the  census  of  19 10  was  14,360,000, 
this  being  a  decrease  since  1900  of  5,680,000  trees.  The  produc- 
tion of  apples  in  1909  amounted  to  9,969,000  bushels,  while  in 
1900  it  was  6,496,000  bushels,  a  gain  of  3,473,000  bushels.  The 
value  of  the  1909  crop  was  $4,886,000. 

New  York  reported  11,248,000  trees  of  bearing  age  in  1910, 
against  15,055,000  trees  in  1900.  This  state  alone  produced  more 
apples  in  1909  than  the  entire  East  North  Central  division,  the 
yield  being  25,409,000  bushels  valued  at  $13,343,000.  In  1899 
a  crop  of  24,1 1 1,000  bushels  was  gathered. 

In  1 9 10  there  were  9,901,000  trees  of  bearing  age  in  the 
state  of  Illinois,  while  in  1900  the  number  was  13,430,000  trees. 
Over  3,093,000  bushels  of  apples  were  produced  in  1909,  against 
9,178,000  in  1899,  a  falling  off  of  over  6,000,000  bushels.  The 
value  of  the  1909  crop  was  $2,1 12,000. 


318 


THE  APPLE 


While  the  states  of  Pennsylvania  and  Michigan  did  not  report 
as  large  a  number  of  trees  in  1910  as  the  above-named  states,  each 
produced  a  considerably  greater  quantity  of  apples  than  Missouri 
or  Illinois. 

All  these  figures  go  to  show  the  size  of  the  apple  industry 
and  the  great  need  of  thorough,  practical  knowledge  of  market 
conditions  in  all  its  branches,  in  order  to  secure  to  the  growers 
a  reasonable  profit. 

Shipping.  There  are  several  ways  in  which  the  fruit  may  be 
brought  to  market.    If  the  orchard  is  located  near  a  city  or  town 

a  good  spring  wagon  will 
prove  a  satisfactory  con- 
veyer. The  motor  truck  is 
now  being  used  by  some 
growers,  either  to  transport 
the  goods  to  market  or  to 
carry  the  apples  from  the 
orchard  or  packing  shed 
directly  to  the  railroad,  and 
has  been  found  to  be  quite 
practical  for  this  purpose. 
A  man  living  a  mile  from 
the  cars  has  found  out  that 
with  a  truck  of  3  5 -horse 
power,  a  capacity  of  3  tons, 
and  running  loaded,  at  the 
rate  of  ten  miles  or  a  little  more  per  hour  on  fair  roads,  the  fol- 
lowing results  can  be  obtained  and  a  great  saving  in  money  made  : 

1.  Only  one  gallon  of  gasoline  will  be  consumed  for  each  ten 
miles. 

2.  Thirty  barrels  of  apples  may  be  hauled  each  trip. 

3.  Two  men  can  do  as  much  work  as  four  men  and  three  teams. 
El ecjnc_fmghtsjiave  proved  to  _be_great  aids  in  the  shipping  of 

apple-s-m-secrions  where  orchards  are  located_near  the  car  lines, 
andaisuallygiye  lower  rates  and  quicker  delivery  than  any  other 
methodjol transportation.  In  certain  localities  boats  are  utilized  to 
convey  the  fruit  to  market.  In  New  York  State  the  new  barge 
canal  offers  a  quick,  cheap,  satisfactory  means  of  shipping  apples. 


Fig.  144.    Ship  by  motor 

The  ownership  of  a  large  auto  truck  simplifies  the 

problem  of  placing  the  product  of  the   orchard 

cheaply  and  quickly  on  the  market 


MARKETING  319 

Sections  near  the  Great  Lakes  or  other  bodies  of  water  have 
the  advantage  of  cheaper  shipping  rates  to  market.  Western  apple- 
growers  believe  that  the  Panama  Canal  will  offer  a  cheaper  means 
of  transportation  than  the  railroad.  They  see  no  reason  why,  via 
the  Canal,  they  cannot  place  their  fruits  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard, 
either  of  the  United  States  or  of  Europe,  at  a  saving  of  from  a 
third  to  a  half  the  rates  charged  at  present. 

The  Panama  Canal  is  another  bright  star  in  the  future  of  the  apple  business 
for  the  Northwest  grower.  We  now  pay  50  cents  freight  to  New  York,  but 
when  the  Panama  Canal  is  completed,  our  rate  will  probably  not  exceed  20  or 
25  cents  per  box.  Our  freight  to  European  points,  including  the  cost  of  trans- 
ferring in  New  York  City,  is  now  about  70  cents  a  box.  Freight  per  box 
through  the  Panama  Canal  will  probably  not  exceed  35  cents  per  box.  In 
other  words,  we  shall  lay  our  apples  down  at  the  Atlantic  coast  at  25  or  30 
cents  per  box  less,  or  abroad  for  30  or  40  cents  per  box  less.1 

The  present-day  shipments,  however,  are  chiefly  by  railroad,  for 
which  rarg  nf  qppciaLdegign,  such  as  cold-storagjTcars,  are  used  in 
some  cases  and  in  others  ordinary  box  cars.  The  apple  barrels 
are  packed  either  on  their  side  or  standing  on  end,  and  securely 
fastened  by  boards  nailed  across  the  car.  Some  shipments  made 
in  bulk  are  merely  placed  on  the  floor  at  each  end  of  the  car  and 
secured  with  boards  near  the  doors  ;  sometimes  they  are  divided 
into  two  bins  with  a  passageway  between  ;  and  at  other  times  they 
are  put  in  one  large  bin  and  boarded  up  part  way  at  the  doors. 
Apples  in  bulk  are  generally  not  more  than  4  or  6  feet  deep. 
Bulk  shipments  are  unsatisfactory  for  high-grade  fruit,  but  cider, 
evaporated,  and  other  low-grade,  cheap  stock  may  be  shipped 
profitably  in  this  manner. 

The  important  item  in  shipping  is  to  have  the  cars,  boats, 
trucks,  etc.  at  hand  when  wanted.  This  should  be  attended  to 
long  enough  ahead  to  avoid  delays.  Such  matters  as  loading  and 
icing  the  cars  and  making  out  the  necessary  shipping  papers 
require  careful  attention.  Each  freight  car  will  hold  from  180  to 
190  barrels  of  apples,  and  if  the  weather  is  warm,  each  car  will 
require  from  1  ton  to  5  tons  of  ice. 

The  exact  method  of  loading  a  car  with  boxes  will  depend  on 
the  kind  of  fruit,  the  season,  and  the  distance  from  the  market. 

1  Better  Fruits.    Published  at  Hood  River,  Oregon. 


320  THE  APPLE 

The  number  of  boxes  per  car  will  also  vary  with  these  conditions. 
Where  the  standard-size  boxes  are  used,  from  500  to  800  will  be 
required,  and  for  half-size  boxes  twice  as  many.  Summer  and  early- 
fall  apples  must  be  handled  carefully  when  sent  a  considerable  dis- 
tance. Where  refrigerator  cars  are  used  and  icing  is  necessary  the 
car  should  be  loaded  as  quickly  as  possible  to  prevent  its  becoming 
heated,  and  thus  reduce  the  ice  bill.  Heated  fruit  should  never  be 
placed  in  an  iced  car,  for  it  will  sweat  and  thus  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  car.    Fruit  should  be  gradually  chilled  before  loading. 


Fig.  145.    An  Avery  truck 
Loaded  with  apples  on  the  way  to  market 

All  boxes  must  be  laid  on  their  sides  and  never  on  the  top  or 
bottom.  Cleats  are  nailed  to  the  floor  of  the  car  to  hold  each  row 
of  boxes  in  place.  Formerly  every  layer  of  boxes  was  firmly 
cleated,  but  good  results  have  been  obtained  from  cleating  only 
the  bottom  layer  and  every  third  layer.  The  fruit  should  be  loaded 
so  as  to  prevent  shifting.  The  two  halves  of  the  car  should  be 
firmly  braced.  If  the  cars  are  to  cross  the  mountains  during  severe 
weather,  they  should  be  lined  with  paper  to  prevent  freezing. 

Consignments  on  commission.  The  most  common  way  to  dispose 
of  fruit  is  to  consign  it  to  a  commission  man.  Shipping  tags  with 
the  consignee's  and  consignor's  names  and  addresses  should  be 


MARKETING 


321 


attached  to  each  barrel  or  box  if  the  shipment  is  small,  or  the  car  or 
several  cars  may  be  consigned  outright  to  one  commission  house. 
So  much  swindling  has  been  done  by  certain  commission  men 
that  as  a  class  they  have  come  into  general  disfavor,  and  often 
unjustly.  Commission  men  are  human  ;  some  are  honest  and 
others  are  not.  Many  times  the  growers  are  at  fault.  They  think 
they  have  handled  their  product  well,  but  it  arrives  at  the  market 
in  a  deplorable  condition,  and  the  commission  man  is  blamed  for 
the  low  price.    A  great  deal  of  thanks  is  due  the  commission  men, 


Fig.  146.    Selling  at  auction 

The  auction  room  of  the  Erie  Railroad,  where  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  apples  and 
other  fruit  are  sold  annually 


for  in  many  localities  the  fruit  industry  owes  its  growth  to  their 
efforts,  and  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  we  can  dispense  with 
them  entirely,  if  indeed  we  ever  can.  However,  it  is  true  that  the 
commission  business  is  so  conducted  that  there  is  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  swindling.  The  grower  must  rely  entirely  on  the  honesty 
of  the  commission  man,  who  can  easily  return  fake  accounts. 
Only  in  those  cases  where  the  fruit  is  bought  outright  for  cash  is 
there  assurance  against  fraud.  It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  much 
swindling  is  done,  and  as  a  result  the  whole  family  of  commission 
men  must  bear  the  stigma.  It  is  largely  their  own  fault,  however, 
for  often  they  conduct  their  business  on  the  plan  that  if  there  is 


322 


THE  APPLE 


any  profit  it  is  theirs,  and  any  loss  must  be  the  grower's.  They 
should  change  their  methods  if  they  desire  confidence,  but  this 
they  will  not  do  so  long  as  they  have  a  large  business  under  pres- 
ent methods.  Before  patronizing  a  commission  man,  be  sure  of 
his  integrity  ;  then  try  to  follow  his  suggestions,  and  do  not  desert 
him  if  he  does  not  bring  you  the  highest  price  the  first  season. 

A  busy  commission  market  is  Washington  Market  on  West 
Street,  in  the  lower  part  of  New  York  City.  It  is  about  780  feet 
long,  allowing  as  many  as  125  cars  to  unload  in  one  morning. 
The  commission  men  are  at  work  early  in  the  morning,  selling 


Fig.  147.    On  the  dock 
The  Erie  Railroad  pier  in  New  York  City,  where  the  apples  are  sold 


direct  to  the  highest  bidder  —  whether  consumer,  retailer,  or 
jobber.  Barrels  are  there  opened  for  inspection,  reheaded,  loaded 
onto  wagons,  and  drawn  away.  Apples,  for  the  most  part,  are 
handled  by  the  commission  men  on  a  10-per-cent  basis,  and  if 
reasonably  satisfactory  prices  cannot  be  obtained  at  the  pier,  they 
are  taken  to  storehouses.  Sometimes  an  extra  profit  of  25  cents 
per  barrel  can  be  obtained  by  so  doing.  It  costs  from  6  to  10  cents 
a  barrel  to  move  apples  from  the  dock  to  Washington  Street. 

The  commission  men  have  teams  and  trucks  of  their  own,  the 
average  cost  of  each  being  $1000.00.  The  horses  last  from  one 
to  five  years  and  the  expense  of  keeping  them  is  $35.00  each  per 


MARKETING 


323 


month,  to  which  S5.00  must  be  added  for  shoeing.  The  truck- 
men are  paid  about  320.00  a  week,  porters  (those  who  load  and 
unload  the  trucks  and  move  fruit  in  and  out  of  the  storehouses) 
from  $18.00  to  $20.00  a  week,  and  salesmen  all  the  way  from 
$25.00  to  $75.00  a  week.  The  rent  of  a  store  in  Washington 
Street,  consisting  of  a  room  on  the  ground  floor  30  feet  wide  and 
100  feet  deep,  is  about  $350.00  a  month  ;  other  expenses,  such 
as  electric  lights,  are,  of  course,  additional. 

To  meet  these  heavy  expenses  and  make  a  profit  the  com- 
mission man  must  do  a  large  amount  of  business  without  many 


Fig.  14S.    New  York  apple  market 

Drays  waiting  in  front  of  the  Erie  Railroad  fruit  wharf  at  New  Vork  to  take  away  the  apple 
crop  after  being  sold  in  the  covered  dock 


losses.  He  generally  opens  his  store  before  midnight,  and  keeps 
it  open  until  about  five  o'clock  the  next  afternoon.  He  is  as 
ready  to  sell  fruit  to  one  man  as  to  another  if  the  price  is  good, 
and  it  is  for  his  interest  to  do  the  best  that  he  can  by  every- 
body. When  the  market  is  crowded  with  a  certain  kind  of  fruit 
and  the  prospects  are  not  favorable  for  good  prices,  he  may 
decide  to  put  some  of  it  in  cold  storage,  but  this  is  not  advisable 
unless  the  fruit  is  of  first-class  quality,  because  the  city  rates  for 
storage  are  25  cents  a  barrel,  whether  for  one  month  or  for  three 
months,  and  it  is  therefore  not  profitable  to  store  goods  for  only 
a  short  time. 


324  THE  APPLE 

Each  consignment  is  carefully  recorded,  and  returns  on  sales 
are  made  by  the  commission  man,  minus  his  commission,  cartage, 
handling,  and,  in  some  cases,  freight  charges.  Returns  are  made 
daily  or  later  with  check  to  balance,  or  a  check  is  given  at  certain 
stated  periods.    Large  amounts  of  fruit  are  handled  in  this  way. 

The  jobber.  Sometimes  another  middleman  handles  the  apples. 
He  purchases  from  the  commission  man,  and  is  known  as  the 
jobber.  These  men  or  houses  generally  have  a  patronage  of  retail 
stores,  clubs,  hotels,  etc.,  which  they  keep  supplied  with  produce. 
They  are  often  forced  to  purchase  on  the  market  if  they  do  not 
have  enough  consignments.  They  frequently  make  from  25  to 
40  cents  on  each  barrel  of  apples.  The  cartage  from  the  commis- 
sion men  to  the  jobbers  and  from  the  latter  to  the  retailers,  clubs, 
hotels,  etc.  must  be  paid  for,  and  between  10  and  25  cents  per 
barrel  is  charged  for  this  labor. 

The  retailer.  At  times,  by  coming  in  direct  touch  with  the 
retailers,  a  grower  can  find  a  good  market  and  often  realize  the 
highest  returns.  Good  advice  is  to  deal  with  only  one  retailer  in 
a  place,  and  ship  nothing  but  first-class  material  in  the  form  that 
will  best  suit  the  retailer.  Some  growers  enjoy  soliciting  this  trade, 
while  to  others  it  is  distasteful. 

Some  retailers  are  equipped  with  horses  and  wagons  or  with 
auto-trucks,  and  can  easily  go  to  the  larger  wholesale  markets  and 
purchase  directly  from  the  commission  men,  loading  the  goods  at 
once  and  thereby  saving  the  expenses  of  the  jobber.  When  the 
retailer  lacks  transporting  facilities  the  jobber  will  deliver  the  apples 
directly  to  the  store  at  an  advance  over  the  prices  of  the  commis- 
sion man.  The  jobbers  keep  teams,  wagons,  and  men,  and  must, 
of  course,  charge  for  delivery  in  order  to  maintain  their  equipment. 

The  push-cart  men  and  hucksters  in  the  large  cities  also  purchase 
most  of  their  fruit  from  the  jobbers.  However,  at  times  both 
these  classes  of  venders  are  able  to  obtain  from  the  commission 
men  fruit  of  poor  quality  at  very  low  prices,  or  a  better  quality 
when  the  market  is  glutted. 

Association  selling.  Another  way  of  disposing  of  the  fruit  is 
through  a  union  or  an  association.  This  is  simply  an  organization 
formed  to  help  the  grower  realize  a  fair  profit  by  doing  away  with 
some  of  the  middlemen  who  eat  up  the  profits  and  leave  little. 


MARKETING 


325 


The  Western  or  Northwestern  fruit  farmer  usually  devotes  all 
his  time  to  one  crop.  If  the  fruit  chosen  is  the  apple,  this  is  the 
grower's  specialty,  and  it  is  on  this  one  crop  that  he  depends  for 
his  income.  Because  of  their  great  distance  from  market,  to  make 
a  profit  the  Western  growers  have  been  forced  to  form  selling 
organizations.    These  have  in  most  cases  been  successful,  for  they 


Fig.  149.    The  ideal  in  store  arrangement 
Harrod's  stores,  London,  England.    (Courtesy  of  the  Northwestern  Fruit  Exchange) 

have  been  able  to  place  the  apples  grown  in  these  regions  not 
only  in  all  the  large  markets  of  the  United  States  but  in  those 
of  foreign  countries  as  well. 

It  has  been  easy  to  form  such  organizations,  particularly  in  the 
Pacific  States,  where  the  farms  are  conducted  on  an  intensive  basis 
and  are  confined  to  small  agricultural  districts  which  are  far  removed 
from  the  best  markets.  The  best  system  is  for  each  locality  to  have 
an  association  consisting  of  the  local  growers.  These  organizations 
then  furnish  a  representative  to  the  larger  central  organization. 

The  many  advantages  of  association  will  be  treated  in  Chapter 
XXVIII. 


326 


THE  APPLE 


Efficient  distribution.  That  distribution  is  most  efficient  which 
most  thoroughly  and  evenly  covers  the  field  and  keeps  the  cost 
of  service  at  a  minimum.  Such  a  distribution  cannot  be  attained 
through  half  a  hundred  selling  associations  acting  independently 
of  one  another.  They  load  the  same  markets,  duplicating  each 
other's  expense  accounts  and  receiving  no  additional  return.  The 
unsatisfactory  results  of  present  methods  were  conspicuous  in  19 12 
(see  p.  314).  The  greater  consuming  ability  of  large  cities  tempts 
shippers  to  concentrate  there  ;  but  in  the  United  States  there  are 
only  180  cities  of  more  than  25,000  population,  and  in  the  rush 


Fig.  150.    Modern  marketing  in  Illinois 
Consider  the  saving  in  horses  and  time 


to  supply  these    markets   many  smaller   ones,   whose  aggregate 
capacity  for  consumption  is  large,  are  altogether  overlooked. 

Individual  shippers  and  weak  associations  cannot  afford  the 
expense  necessary  to  keep  in  touch  with  all  markets  and  to  know 
the  financial  standing  of  the  dealers  there.  They  prefer  to  take 
their  chances  at  the  big  centers  and  with  firms  whose  responsibility 
they  know.  Therefore  prices  are  hammered  down  to  an  unremu- 
nerative  basis,  while  at  the  smaller  markets  there  is  an  undersupply, 
or  a  supply  at  prices  covering  so  many  middlemen's  profits  as  to 
be  unattractive  to  the  average  consumer.  In  fact,  if  conditions  of 
distribution  were  what  they  should  be,  consumers  in  interior  towns 


MARKETING  327 

would  be  provided  with  apples  at  a  lower  price  than  that  charged 
in  large  cities,  because  retailers  there  are  under  less  expense. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  evenness  of  distribution,  by  which 
all  the  lesser  markets  would  be  provided  with  their  due  share,  with 
the  elimination  of  unnecessary  middlemen,  would  result  in  vastly 
increased  consumption.  Apples  would  then  be  within  the  means 
of  many  more  consumers  than  at  present.  The  great  bulk  of  the 
apple  crop  should  be  consumed  by  the  common  people. 

The  most  efficient  distribution  can  be  secured  only  through  cen- 
tralization of  distributive  agencies.  Great  credit  is  due  to  those 
few  well-organized,  well-managed,  and  successful  shipping  associa- 
tions which  have  brought  the  grade  and  pack  of  Northwestern 
apples  up  to  their  present  high  mark,  so  that  they  have  won 
supremacy  in  Eastern  markets.  But  these  heretofore  efficient 
organizations  are  no  longer  able  to  cope  with  the  situation.  Pro- 
duction has  outstripped  their  facilities.  Output  has  overtaken  the 
outlet  which  they  are  able  to  provide.  They  must  combine  their 
plants.  The  merging  of  facilities  in  one  central  selling  agency 
affords  the  only  hope  of  escape  from  the  chaos  which  confronts 
the  apple  output  of  the  near  future. 

Apple-growing  is  a  business.  Why  should  we  assume  that  this 
business  can  succeed  on  other  lines  than  business  lines  ?  Manu- 
facturers appreciate  the  advantage  of  combining  their  resources 
and  of  centralizing  their  distributive  efforts.  Why  should  not  apple 
growers  do  the  same  ? 

New  markets.  It  may  be  well  here  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
individual  dealers  do  not  as  a  rule  develop  new  markets.  This 
development  requires  time  and  money,  — both  of  which  the  fruit 
merchant  is  loth  to  give,  —  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  an  indi- 
vidual merchant  can  seldom  hope  to  reap  an  adequate  reward  for 
a  large  outlay  in  the  development  of  new  markets.  This  work 
properly  belongs  to  the  fruit-growers,  with  what  aid  and  assistance 
they  can  get  from  the  consumers  concerned.  No  better  use  can 
be  made  of  a  surplus  stock  than  to  apply  it  to  the  development 
of  new  markets.  It  is  a  common  experience  to  find  that  after  a 
year  of  extraordinary  production  in  fruit,  and  consequent  low  prices, 
the  demand  in  many  quarters  has  increased.  Market  development 
is  the  work  of  fruit-growers  as  a  whole,  and  can  be  done  by  a 


328  THE  APPLE 

union  of  cooperative  associations  better  than  in  any  other  way. 
This  is  not  a  matter  of  theory.  The  best-organized  selling  cooper- 
ative associations  have  recognized  that  the  development  of  new 
markets  is  a  most  important  part  of  their  work,  and  large  quan- 
tities of  surplus  fruit  are  frequently  used  for  this  purpose  by  such 
organizations  as  the  California  Fruit  Exchange  and  the  Georgia 
Peach  Growers'  Exchange. 

Export.  Large  shipments  of  apples  from  the  United  States  and 
Canada  are  made  each  year.  Practically  all  the  apples  grown  in 
the  famous  Annapolis  valley,  Nova  Scotia,  are  exported  to  Eng- 
land. The  development  of  the  apple  trade  in  Nova  Scotia  is 
similar  to  that  in  Ontario,  and  began  about  the  same  time.  About 
1870,  shipments  from  Nova  Scotia  to  London  were  in  large  enough 
cargoes  to  attract  attention.  Later,  Halifax  secured  a  direct  line 
of  steamers  that  has  served  the  needs  of  the  trade  more  or  less 
satisfactorily  up  to  the  present  time.  The  exports  in  1880  were 
only  24,000  barrels,  and  in  1886,  177,500  barrels.  The  phenome- 
nal crop  of  1896  gave  a  surplus  of  something  like  500,000  barrels, 
and  the  191 1  crop  gave  an  output  for  export  and  long-distance 
shipments  of  1,500,000  barrels,  representing  a  total  yield  of  about 
2,000,000  barrels. 

Large  numbers  of  barrels  are  consigned  from  the  ports  of  Port- 
land, Boston,  New  York,  and  other  cities.  The  Pacific  coast  grow- 
ers are  watching  with  eager  eyes  for  the  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal  and  the  low  rates  by  boat  direct  to  Europe  and  other  foreign 
countries.    The  demand  for  export  apples  is  ever  on  the  increase. 

In  selling  consignments  of  American  apples  in  Liverpool  not 
only  is  the  head  of  the  barrel  opened,  but  the  contents  are  poured 
out  on  a  platform  for  inspection  by  the  buyers,  sometimes  several 
barrels  being  so  inspected.  The  shipment  is  sold  on  the  showing 
of  these  sample  barrels. 

Hamburg  is  becoming  one  of  the  best  foreign  markets  for 
American-grown  apples.  Probably  from  2000  to  5000  boxes  a 
week  could  be  utilized  there.  Before  Christmas  such  varieties  as 
Extra  Fancy  Jonathan,  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  and  similar  apples  could 
be  sold  in  boxes  and  are  in  good  demand.  After  Christmas  it  is 
difficult  to  sell  them,  for  the  demand  is  then  for  the  barreled  prod- 
uct.  Thousands  of  barrels  are  shipped  annually  from  Canada,  New 


MARKETING  329 

England,  and  New  York  to  supply  this  trade.  Boxed  apples  for 
the  after-Christmas  trade  should  be  the  finest  Winesaps,  Rome 
Beauties,  Orange  Yellow  Pippins,  and  other  high-grade  goods.  Of 
all  the  Western  boxed  apples,  there  are  none  that  equals  the  Orange 
Yellow  Pippin  and  the  Winesap  in  the  eyes  of  the  Hamburg  con- 
sumer. Often  $4.00  or  $5.00  a  box  is  paid  for  this  choice  fruit.  If 
Ben  Davis  were  offered  for  sale  at  the  same  time  in  March,  probably 
$1.75  to  $2.00  would  be  all. that  could  be  obtained.  The  ocean  rate 
is  22  j  cents  per  cubic  foot  for  apples  in  cold  storage  and  fifteen 
cents  in  common  storage.  The  railroad  charges  per  hundred  from 
the  point  of  growing  to  New  York  City,  and  the  commission  in 
Hamburg,  should  be  subtracted  from  these  figures. 

Owing  to  its  geographical  location,  Hamburg  is  destined  to  be 
a  great  distributing  center,  as  it  has  good  communication  with  many 
other  parts  of  continental  Europe,  north,  south,  and  east. 

Selling  fancy  apples.  There  are  two  kinds  of  consumers  that 
must  be  catered  to  —  one  is  the  family  which  buys  by  the  box  or 
barrel,  the  other  is  the  individual  living  in  an  apartment,  a  board- 
ing house,  or  a  hotel,  who  buys  by  the  dozen.  To  reach  this  in- 
dividual buyer,  growers  must  put  their  apples  up  in  attractive 
pasteboard  boxes  —  half  a  dozen  or  a  dozen  apples  in  a  box  — 
with  neat  handles,  so  that  the  purchaser  can  conveniently  carry  the 
package.  The  average  individual  will  not  buy  a  dozen  apples  if 
put  up  in  a  paper  bag. 

In  19 1 2  a  grower  in  Missouri  sold  500  boxes  of  fancy  apples 
for  $50.00  a  box.  Each  box  was  divided  into  twelve  compartments, 
each  holding  one  apple,  at  least  3  inches  in  diameter,  wrapped  in 
paper.  The  apples  were  hand  selected  at  the  trees,  and  were 
wrapped  at  once  in  tissue  paper  and  placed  in  the  compartments 
of  the  box.  Each  box  was  supplied  with  a  label  which  gave  the 
name  of  the  variety  and  the  name  and  address  of  the  grower. 

A  still  more  fancy  article  has  been  placed  on  the  market  —  one 
apple  with  stem  and  two  leaves  attached,  well  wrapped  in  tissue 
paper  and  packed  in  a  separate  box.  The  boxes  are  sealed  with 
a  small  band  of  paper  and  neatly  labeled  with  the  name  of  the 
variety,  the  locality,  and  the  grower.  These  individual  apples  are 
in  demand  at  certain  select  hotels  and  restaurants  in  the  large 
cities,  where  they  are  served  to  the  guests  without  breaking  the 


330  THE  APPLE 

seal.  The  apple  with  the  two  green  leaves  (the  leaves  are  dipped 
in  a  solution  that  preserves  their  natural  color)  makes  a  very  attrac- 
tive appearance.  Fifteen  cents  each  at  wholesale  has  been  received 
for  apples  put  up  in  this  manner. 

Cost  of  selling  compared  with  cost  of  growing.  A  good  average 
cost  of  growing  apples  in  barrel  lots  is  as  follows  : 

Labor 50.50  to  50.75 

Interest  and  other  charges .10  to       .15 

Incidental  cash  outlay .15  to       .25 

One  barrel .35  to       40 

Total #1.10  to  51.55 

If  stored 25  to      .40 

51.35  to  51-95 

The  average  cost  of  selling  apples  in  barrel  lots  is  as  follows  : 

Freight $0.10  to  $0.15 

Commission .06  to       .25 

Cartage .15  to       .25 

Jobbers 25  to       .40 

Retailers    ...  .50  to    3.00 

Total 5 1. 06  to  54-05 

If  storage  is  necessary .25  to      .35 

$1.31  to  54-3° 

In  other  words  it  costs  as  much  at  a  low  average  to  sell  a 
barrel  of  apples  in  barrel  lots  as  it  costs  to  raise  it,  and  some- 
times the  selling  costs  are  twice  those  of  the  highest  average 
production   costs. 

Advertising.  A  campaign  of  advertising  called  the  "  Stamp 
Plan"  has  been  started  by  the  International  Apple  Shippers' 
Association.  The  plan  is  patterned  after  that  used  by  the  various 
governments  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  raise  large  funds  ;  for 
instance,  during  the  Spanish-American  War. 

The  stamps  will  be  issued  in  two  denominations  —  one-cent  and 
two-cent.  A  one-cent  stamp  will  be  required  for  every  box  of 
apples  and  a  two-cent  stamp  for  every  barrel.  The  money  derived 
from  the  sale  of  the  stamps  will  be  placed  by  the  Equitable  Trust 
Company  of  New  York  City  to  the  credit  of  the  advertising  fund. 
The  stamps  will  be  placed  on  sale  at  various  distributing  agencies 


MARKETING  331 

August  1,  191 5,  which  will  give  sufficient  time  to  create  adequate 
funds  for  advertising  the  apple  crop  of  that  year. 

This  plan  will  provide  the  means  of  carrying  on  a  continuous 
country-wide  campaign  through  trade  papers,  magazines,  news- 
papers, circulars,  and  other  agencies,  that  will  acquaint  the  masses 
with  the  great  food  and  health-giving  value  of  the  apple.  It  will 
furnish  the  money  for  an  educational  propaganda  among  retailers, 
convincing  them  that  moderate  profits  and  many  sales  is  in  the 
end  the  most  profitable  policy.  It  will  forever  settle  the  question 
as  to  the  amount  any  one  individual  ought  to  contribute,  since  it 
provides  that  each  man  shall  contribute  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  his  output. 

For  many  years  the  problem  of  advertising  has  been  studied 
diligently,  especially  in  America.  Some  of  the  mysteries  of  the 
science  have  been  solved,  and  many  more  are  in  process  of 
solution.  But  thus  far  no  one  has  struck  the  keynote  in  advertising 
the  apple,  perhaps  because  growers  have  not  felt  the  need  of 
high-class  publicity  in  the  selling  of  so  common  a  product. 

The  story  of  the  apple,  if  told  and  retold,  will  prove  as  fascinat- 
ing to  people  as  the  story  of  the  pineapple,  the  banana,  or  the 
orange.  The  trouble  is  that  the  story  has  not  been  told  at  all  as  it 
should  be,  and  the  people  have  lost  sight  of  the  apple  because  of 
its  common  origin  and  its  careless  display  at  the  corner  grocery. 
Familiarity  has  bred  contempt  in  the  case  of  the  apple,  as  truly  as 
mystery  in  production  and  care  in  distribution  have  brought  to  the 
orange  and  the  banana  the  elements  of  luxury  and  dignity.  Yet, 
the  plebeian  apple  is  eaten  all  over  the  world,  and  is  used  by  as 
many  people,  perhaps,  as  all  other  fruits  put  together. 

In  advertising  the  apple  the  appeal  must  be  made  directly  to 
women.  As  the  housewife  buys  practically  all  the  provisions  for 
the  family,  it  is  essential  that  comprehensive  and  reliable  knowledge 
of  the  value  of  the  apple  as  a  food  and  as  a  substitute  for  medi- 
cine be  given  the  housewives  of  the  country.  To  do  this  a  fund 
of  large  proportions  must  be  made  available,  and  producers,  dis- 
tributors, and  dealers  must  combine  their  efforts  in  a  well-laid 
plan  to  expend  it. 

A  start  must  be  made,  and  it  should  be  made  quickly.  The 
apple  industry  demands  such  a  movement,  and  every  man  in  the 


332  THE  APPLE 

trade  who  has  given  thought  to  the  matter  recognizes  the  necessity 
for  action.  Now  is  the  time  to  plan  and  execute.  A  broad  plan  is 
essential,  but,  above  all,  hearty  cooperation  will  be  needed  to  carry 
the  scheme  to  success. 

Methods  of  attracting  attention.  A  good  method  for  attracting 
attention  would  be  a  reproduction  of  a  standard  box  of  apples. 

Labels  are  another  factor  to  be  considered.  A  standard  label  for 
eating  apples  should  be  used,  and  a  different  one  for  the  best  cook- 
ing varieties.  In  addition,  each  box  or  package  should  contain  a 
card  or  have  a  label,  giving  the  variety  of  the  apple,  its  color,  its 
quality,  its  value  for  cooking  or  eating,  and  the  period  during  which 
it  is  at  its  best  for  consumption.  In  this  way  the  housewife  may 
be  able  to  learn  just  what  to  ask  for  when  ordering  at  the  store,  and 
by  the  label  she  would  know  what  she  was  receiving. 

An  advertising  scheme  already  introduced  is  that  of  publishing 
a  small  book  containing  209  ways  of  serving  apples.  Copies  of  this 
booklet  are  given  free  to  each  purchaser,  or  one  is  inserted  in  each 
box  of  apples.  The  educational  value  of  these  books  is  enormous. 
Where  issued,  consumption  would  naturally  increase. 

Apple  shows,  fairs,  land  shows,  and  other  exhibitions  offer  oppor- 
tunities for  advertising  the  apple.  Electric  signs  in  the  large  cities, 
editorial  paragraphs  and  articles  in  the  newspapers,  setting  forth 
the  value  of  the  apple  as  a  food  and  as  a  dietetic  aid  to  better  health, 
advertisements  and  articles  in  the  many  high-class  journals  or  maga- 
zines, especially  those  which  reach  the  greatest  number  of  women, 
all  are  means  that  should  be  used.  The  advertisements  in  current 
publications  could  be  small,  but  they  should  be  educational,  giving 
the  names  of  the  best  apples,  a  good  description  of  each,  the  place 
where  grown,  the  rating  as  to  quality  for  eating,  and  the  time  at 
which  they  are  best  eaten.  Lists  should  also  be  given  of  the  apples 
specially  adapted  for  baking  and  other  cooking  purposes.  Perhaps 
all  these  ideas  should  not  be  included  in  one  article,  but  all  are 
important  and  should  be  emphasized  in  due  course. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
STORAGE 


o 


Apple  culture  has  attained  such  proportions  in  the  United  States 
that  the  harvesting  and  disposition  of  the  crop  have  become  matters 
of  national  importance.  To  preserve  the  crop  until  it  is  distributed 
to  consumers  in  a  sound  and  wholesome  condition  is  probably 
one  of  the  most  important  questions  of  commercial  apple-growing. 
Through  the  warm  months  of  September  and  October  a  large  part 
of  the  crop  ripens  rapidly,  and  is  thrown  on  the  market  in  perish- 
able condition  before  midwinter,  causing  a  disastrous  glut  and  low 
prices,  followed  by  abnormally  high  prices  to  the  consumer  in  late 
winter  and  early  spring. 

The  beginning  of  refrigerated  cold  storage,  which  was  welcomed 
by  growers  and  dealers  as  the  solution  of  the  problem,  dates  back 
to  about  1890.  Experience  has  demonstrated,  however,  that  in 
many  instances  fruit  held  in  cold  storage  in  the  fall  has  failed  to 
come  out  in  good  condition  in  the  late  winter  or  spring.  Observa- 
tions show  that  different  lots  of  fruit  in  the  same  storage  room 
behave  differently,  some  keeping  well,  while  others  spoil.  Since 
1900  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  several  experiment  sta- 
tions have  taken  up  the  question  of  cold  storage,  with  a  view  to  re- 
ducing the  uncertainty  and  loss.  It  was  found  necessary  to  study 
into  the  whole  problem  of  orchard  location  and  cultural  treatment, 
as  well  as  the  methods  employed  in  picking,  packing,  and  shipping 
the  fruit  —  all  of  these  having  important  bearing  on  the  availability 
of  the  product  after  it  reaches  the  storage  house. 

Cold  storage  is  having  such  an  important  influence  in  developing 
the  apple  industry  as  a  staple  business  that  in  many  sections  it  is 
now  becoming  the  principal  crop  instead  of  an  incidental  one. 

Apple  storage.  An  apple,  to  have  the  best  keeping  and  com- 
mercial qualities,  should  usually  be  fully  grown  and  highly  colored 
when  picked.  When  harvested  in  this  condition  it  is  less  liable 
to  scald,  is  of  better  quality,  more  attractive  in  appearance,  and  is 

333 


334  THE  APPLE 

worth  more  money  than  one  picked  in  a  green  condition.  An 
exception  to  this  statement  seems  to  exist  in  the  case  of  certain 
varieties  when  borne  on  rapidly  growing  young  trees.  Such  fruit 
is  likely  to  be  overgrown,  and  under  these  conditions  the  apples 
may  need  picking  before  they  reach  their  highest  color  and  fullest 
development. 

Uniform  color  may  be  secured  by  pruning  to  let  the  sunlight 
into  the  top  of  trees,  by  cultural  conditions  that  check  the  growth 
of  the  tree  early  in  the  fall,  and  by  picking  over  the  trees  several 
times,  taking  in  each  picking  the  apples  that  have  attained  the 
desirable  degree  of  color  and  size. 

Apple  storage  is  not  always  profitable.  When  the  picking  season 
is  very  hot  and  there  are  delays  in  getting  the  fruit  into  storage, 
the  subsequent  losses  are  sometimes  very  heavy.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  autumn  may  be  unusually  cool  and  favorable  for  storing 
large  quantities  of  apples  in  common  storage.  As  a  result,  the 
markets  will  be  well  supplied  with  this  fruit  through  the  winter, 
causing  the  cold-storage  stock  to  be  held  back  till  late  in  the  season, 
when  it  has  to  be  rushed  onto  the  market  and  sold  at  a  sacrifice 
on  account  of  the  approaching  warm  weather  and  the  use  of  early 
apples  from  the  South. 

Apples  should  be  stored  as  quickly  as  possible  after  picking. 
The  fruit  ripens  rapidly  after  it  is  gathered,  especially  if  the  weather 
is  hot.  The  ripening  that  takes  place  between  the  time  of  picking 
and  storage  shortens  the  life  of  the  fruit  in  the  storage  house.  The 
first  stage  in  this  ripening  is  the  transformation  of  starch  into  cane 
sugar,  then  the  change  of  cane  sugar  into  invert  sugar,  and  finally 
a  slow  decrease  in  the  total  quantity  of  sugars.  The  acid  content 
gradually  grows  less,  there  being  most  in  the  unripe  fruit. 

The  best  fruit  keeps  best  in  storage.  When  the  crop  is  light,  it 
may  pay  to  store  fruit  of  inferior  grade,  but  in  this  case  the  grades 
should  be  well  established  when  the  fruit  is  picked.  The  bruising 
of  fruit  leads  to  premature  decay. 

Temperature  for  storage.  A  temperature  of  31  or  33  degrees  Fv 
depending  on  the  condition  of  the  fruit  and  the  variety,  retards  the 
ripening  processes  and  favors  the  fruit  in  other  respects,  such  as 
quality,  aroma,  and  flavor,  and  when  removed  from  storage  the 
fruit  keeps  in  good  condition  for  a  longer  period. 


STORAGE  335 

The  results  of  experiments  would  seem  to  indicate  that  apples 
frozen  in  cold  storage  at  temperatures  of  24  degrees  or  above  would 
remain  uninjured  if  thawed  out  gradually  at  a  temperature  below 
freezing  —  between  29  to  31  degrees.  If  proper  care  is  given  to 
fruit  accidentally  frozen,  the  claims  for  damage  against  the  storage 
men  will  be  less. 

Function  of  temperature.  The  behavior  of  different  apples  or 
lots  of  apples  in  a  storage  room  is  largely  dependent  on  their  con- 
dition when  they  enter  the  room.  If  they  are  in  different  stages 
of  ripeness  or  have  been  grown  or  handled  differently  or  vary  in 
other  respects,  they  will  show  different  conditions  as  they  slowly 
ripen  in  the  low  temperature.  If  the  fruit  is  already  overripe  the 
low  temperature  cannot  prevent  its  deteriorating  sooner  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case.  If  the  fruit  has  been  bruised  or  is  covered 
with  rot  spores,  the  low  temperature  may  retard  but  cannot  prevent 
its  premature  decay.  If  there  are  inherent  differences  in  the  apples, 
due  to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  methods  of  orchard  manage- 
ment, or  variations  due  to  methods  of  picking,  packing,  and  ship- 
ping, the  low  temperature  must  not  be  expected  to  obliterate  them  ; 
it  can  only  retard  their  normal  development. 

Time  for  storing.  A  delay  between  harvesting  and  storing  is 
responsible  for  the  deterioration  of  large  quantities  of  fruit.  The 
extent  of  this  loss  depends  on  several  things,  the  most  common 
of  which  are  the  temperature  during  the  period  of  delay  and  the 
condition  under  which  the  fruit  is  held,  whether  in  piles  in  the 
orchard,  in  tight  buildings,  where  the  warm  air  cannot  pass  off 
readily,  or  in  transit  in  tight  cars.  Fungous  diseases  get  started 
and  develop  rapidly  while  the  fruit  is  warm,  and  cannot  be  checked 
entirely  when  placed  in  storage.  However,  if  the  weather  is  cool 
enough  to  prevent  after-ripening,  a  delay  in  the  storage  of  the 
fruit  may  not  be  injurious  to  its  keeping  qualities. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  orchardist  or  the  apple  dealer  who 
cannot  secure  quick  transportation  to  the  large  storage  centers, 
or  who  cannot  obtain  refrigerator  cars,  or  who  is  geographically 
situated  where  the  weather  is  usually  warm  in  apple-picking  time, 
the  local  storage  plant  in  which  the  fruit  can  be  placed  at  once 
and  distributed  in  cool  weather  offers  important  advantages.  Many 
of  the  large  apple  centers  are  supplied  with  storage  facilities. 


336  THE  APPLE 

Removal  from  storage.  Apples  should  be  in  a  firm  condition 
when  taken  from  storage,  and  should  be  kept  in  a  low  tempera- 
ture after  removal.  A  high  temperature  hastens  decomposition  and 
develops  scald.  Comparisons  at  the  New  Hampshire  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  indicated  that  the  length  of  time  apples  keep 
when  taken  out  of  cold  storage  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  height 
of  the  temperature  to  which  they  are  subjected.  When  the  fruit 
is  taken  out  of  storage  at  a  time  when  conditions  are  especially 
favorable  for  decay,  it  decomposes  faster  than  in  the  fall  or  winter, 
when  the  temperature  is  low. 

Wrappers.  Apple  wrappers  tend  to  delay  apple  scald  on  most 
varieties  with  which  they  have  been  used.  They  also  postpone  the 
breaking  down  of  fruits  and  prevent  the  spread  of  decay.  They 
are  out  of  the  question,  however,  except  where  apples  are  packed 
in  boxes  or  where  packed  for  special  purposes  in  barrels.  The  cost 
of  wrappers  amounts  to  from  3  to  4  cents  per  bushel  in  addition  to 
the  expense  of  wrapping.  With  fancy  boxed  grades  the  wrapper 
is  of  considerable  value  in  preserving  the  fruits  in  cold  storage  ; 
and  its  use  is  advisable  for  the  finest  grades  of  fruit  placed  on 
the  market  in  small  packages. 

There  appears  to  be  no  decided  preference  for  any  particular 
kind  of  wrapper.  Wrapping  fruit  in  paraffin  paper  and  then  in 
newspaper  has  been  advocated.  This  is  perhaps  a  trifle  bulky,  but 
the  danger  of  mechanical  injury  will  be  lessened  and  the  loss  in 
transportation  reduced  to  a  minimum.  For  commercial  use  but  one 
wrapper  is  needed. 

Packages.  Apples  that  are  to  be  stored  for  any  length  of  time 
should  be  placed  in  closed  packages.  Delicate  fruit  and  that  in 
which  the  ripening  processes  need  to  be  quickly  checked  should  be 
stored  in  the  smallest  practicable  commercial  package.  The  fruit 
cools  more  rapidly  in  small  packages. 

Professor  Ernest  Walker  of  the  Arkansas  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  says  : 

It  does  not  pay  to  store  inferior  grades  of  fresh  fruit  for  marketing,  no 
matter  how  short  the  fruit  crop  may  be  in  your  section.  Such  fruit  does  not 
keep  well  and  it  is  a  blunder  to  try  to  get  the  public  to  pay  a  good  price  for 
poor  fruit.  Grade  the  fruit  according  to  size,  color,  and  quality,  and  pack  so 
that  the  contents  of  packages  are  the  same  from  top  to  bottom.   Mark  and  seal 


STORAGE  337 

according  to  grade,  and  (if  the  conditions  are  favorable)  store  only  the  best 
grades.  But  do  not  store  even  these  grades  if  the  price  at  the  orchard  is  fair, 
and  you  have  an  offer  at  a  reasonable  price.  Let  those  who  have  the  capital, 
and  who  make  a  specialty  of  storage,  take  the  risks,  unless  you  are  carefully 
studying  the  fruit  supplies  and  markets  over  the  country. 

Good  cold-storage  stock  should  not  be  overgrown  fruit.  In  a 
number  of  varieties  the  larger  apples  are  noticeably  shorter  lived 
in  storage  than  medium-sized  fruits  of  the  same  variety. 

Differences  have  been  noticed  in  boxes  where  the  size  varied 
only  by  40  or  50  apples  to  the  box.  In  almost  every  variety  the 
larger  apples  will  not  keep  so  long  as  the  smaller  ones.  They 
also  lose  their  flavor  earlier.  Just  why  this  is  true  is  a  matter  of 
discussion.  Doubtless  the  flesh  is  coarser  and  will  break  down 
more  quickly  than  in  the  smaller  fruits.  Further  investigation 
along  this  line  should  be  undertaken. 

Importance  of  an  unbroken  skin  on  apples  for  cold  storage.  The 
importance  of  storing  only  fruits  which  are  entirely  sound  has  been 
demonstrated  in  numerous  instances.  Apples  which  had  been 
russeted  with  spray  mixture,  by  frost,  or  by  limb  rubbing  shriveled 
much  earlier  than  those  which  had  a  smooth,  clear  skin.  Some 
apples  have  a  tendency  to  crack,  while  in  others  there  is  a  natural 
roughening  of  the  skin.  In  seasons  when  the  cracking  is  bad,  it 
is  not  well  to  include  affected  fruits  in  cold-storage  stock,  for  they 
will  shrivel  before  the  end  of  the  season,  since  any  break  in  the 
skin  allows  the  cell  sap  to  evaporate  more  rapidly.  This  only 
emphasizes  the  importance  of  having  strictly  first-grade  stock  for 
cold-storage  purposes.  Where  the  fruit  has  been  burned  by  spray 
mixture  or  scarred  in  any  other  way,  it  should  not  be  included  in 
storage  stock  that  is  to  be  held  after  February  1. 

Apple  scald.  Scald  is  not  well  understood,  but  is  probably  caused 
by  a  ferment  or  enzyme  which  works  more  rapidly  in  a  high  tem- 
perature. After  the  fruit  is  packed  its  susceptibility  to  scald  in- 
creases as  the  ripening  progresses.  Apple  scald  is  not  a  contagious 
disease,  but,  according  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  a  phys- 
iological disturbance  not  connected  in  any  way  with  the  action  of 
parasitic  or  saprophytic  organisms  such  as  molds  or  bacteria.  It  is 
a  brownish  discoloration  of  the  surface  not  extending  into  the  flesh 
of  the  apple,  though  scalded  fruit  will  break  down  earlier  than 


338  THE  APPLE 

unaffected  apples.  The  greatest  damage  from  the  trouble  is  the 
lessening  of  the  market  value  of  the  fruit  due  to  its  unattractive 
appearance. 

The  interest  in  apple  scald  among  growers  and  shippers  was 
especially  keen  during  the  season  of  191 2- 19 13,  when  much  loss 
from  this  cause  was  experienced  in  parts  of  the  United  States. 
There  is  much  difference  in  varieties  in  regard  to  their  suscepti- 
bility to  scald.  Investigations  and  observations  seem  to  show  that 
maturity  is  one  of  the  main  factors  in  this  trouble.  Well-matured, 
well-colored  specimens  scald  very  little,  while  immature  and  poorly 
colored  specimens  suffer  greatly.  The  appearance  of  the  scald  also 
seems  to  be  closely  connected  with  the  changes  that  occur  in  ripen- 
ing after  the  apples  are  packed,  and  is  most  injurious  as  the  fruit 
approaches  the  end  of  its  life.  The  ripening  that  takes  place 
between  the  picking  of  the  fruit  and  its  storage  makes  it  more 
susceptible  to  scald,  and  delay  in  storing  fruit  in  hot  weather  is 
particularly  injurious.  The  fruit  scalds  least  in  a  low  temperature. 
Scald  quickly  develops  on  fruit  removed  from  storage  late  in  the 
season,  especially  when  the  temperature  is  high. 

From  the  information  at  hand  at  this  time,  it  would  seem  that 
such  varieties  as  Grimes,  Sheriff,  Winesap,  Arkansas,  and  others 
which  scald  badly  should  be  picked  as  late  as  possible,  but  before 
heavy  dropping  begins  or  there  is  danger  of  freezing,  thus  securing 
well-matured  specimens.  If  good  storage  facilities  in  the  way  of 
cellars  or  caves  are  at  hand,  varieties  of  good  keeping  qualities, 
like  the  Winesap  and  the  Arkansas,  can  be  handled  profitably  in 
common  storage. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  how  much  scald  injures 
the  apples,  some  dealers  claiming  that  it  does  not  affect  the  sale 
of  the  fruit  to  any  appreciable  extent.  Scalded  fruits  may  find  a 
ready  market  for  culinary  use  at  bakeries,  restaurants,  and  hotels. 

Preventing  scald.  It  does  not  appear  practicable  to  treat  the 
fruit  with  gases  or  other  substances  to  prevent  scald.  From  a 
practical  standpoint  the  scald  may  be  prevented  to  the  greatest 
extent  by  producing  highly  colored,  well-developed  fruit,  by  stor- 
ing this  fruit  as  soon  as  it  is  picked  in  a  temperature  of  31  or 
32  degrees  F.,  and  by  removing  it  from  storage  in  the  coolest 
possible  outside  temperature. 


STORAGE 


339 


A  variety  may  differ  in  its  keeping  qualities  when  grown  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country.  It  may  vary  when  grown  in  the  same 
locality  under  different  cultural  conditions.  The  character  of  the 
soil,  the  age  of  the  trees,  weather  conditions,  and  the  care  of  the 
orchard  are  factors  modifying  the  growth  of  tree  and  fruit,  and 
may  affect  the  keeping  quality  of  apples. 

Frost-proof  building  for  apple  storage.  Frost-proof  construction 
for  the  storage  of  apples  generally  comprises  a  building  wholly  or 
partially  below  ground,  with  insulated  side  walls  and  ceiling.    It 


Fig.  151.    A  fine  type  of  concrete  storehouse 

Adapted  to  the  farm  or  organization  of  farmers.    By  properly  ventilating  and  arranging  for 

the  taking  in  of  cold  air  during  the  night  and  the  release  of  warmer  air,  apples  may  be  very 

successfully  stored  during  the  fall  and  winter 


is  sometimes  built  entirely  aboveground,  but  in  this  case  some 
means  of  heating  may  be  necessary  during  extreme  periods  of 
cold  weather.  For  insulation  the  old-style  construction  consisting 
of  air  spaces  should  be  abandoned  and  the  modern  construction 
of  filled  spaces  substituted.  Mill  or  planer  shavings,  perfectly  dry 
sawdust,  cut  straw,  or  any  similar  material  may  be  used  for  filling. 
Whatever  is  used  must  be  protected,  both  on  its  interior  surface 
toward  the  storage  room  and  on  the  exterior  surface  toward  the 
outer  air,  by  water-tight,  air-tight  insulating  paper.  The  thickness 
of  insulation  desirable  depends  on  the  type  of  construction,  the 


340  THE  APPLE 

exposure,  the  capacity  of  the  room  or  rooms,  the  arrangement,  the 
local  conditions,  etc.  A  thickness  of  from  8  to  16  inches  divided 
into  one  or  two  spaces  would  probably  cover  the  extremes. 

Frost-proof  buildings  are  fairly  satisfactory  for  both  small  and 
large  orchards  when  the  apples  are  to  be  held  for  a  short  time 
only.  One  of  the  best  buildings  of  this  type  is  located  at  Rochester 
Junction,  New  York.  It  is  built  of  concrete,  with  three  walls  and 
two  dead-air  spaces.  Ample  ventilation  is  provided  through  the 
roof,  after  a  modification  of  the  King  system.  Apples  have  been 
kept  here  very  satisfactorily  and  at  a  low  cost. 

Storage  of  apples  in  the  home.  Where  only  cellars  are  avail- 
able —  especially  warm  cellars  —  it  will  be  found  a  decided  advan- 
tage to  wrap  the  apples  in  paper.  Regular  wraps  may  be  bought 
at  retail  for  between  16  and  24  cents  per  thousand  sheets,  or 
newspapers  may  be  used,  cutting  each  newspaper  into  12-inch 
squares.    The  apples  when  wrapped  should  be  stored  in  boxes. 

The  advantages  of  wrapping  the  apples  are  as  follows  : 

1 .  Wilting  is  stopped. 

2.  Temperature  changes  are  lessened. 

3.  Ripening  processes  are  retarded. 

4.  The  spread  of  disease  is  prevented. 

5.  Bruising  is  prevented. 

On  the  farm  the  apples  may  be  stored  in  the  root  cellar  or 
the  storage  house  if  care  is  taken  to  give  proper  ventilation  and 
to  prevent  freezing. 

Commercial  cold-storage  houses.  Most  commercial  cold-storage 
houses  are  owned  or  controlled  by  people  who  are  not  fruit-growers. 
The  business  then  is  carried  on  as  a  strictly  money-making  propo- 
sition, and  eggs  and  other  commodities  are  stored  as  well  as  apples. 

The  construction  of  these  buildings  is  somewhat  complicated. 
The  walls  may  be  of  wood,  concrete,  stone,  or  brick.  Several 
spaces  filled  with  mineral  wool,  hair,  felt,  mill  shavings,  or  some 
other  material  are  built  in  the  walls.  Other  measures  for  thoroughly 
insulating  the  building  are  also  used.  The  insulation  extends  not 
only  around  the  building,  but  through  the  floors  and  ceilings. 

Ice  cold  storage.  The  first  successful  ice  cold-storage  houses 
were  built  with  ice  above  the  storage  chamber,  and  a  large  majority 
of  those  now  in  use  are  of  this  kind.    They  are  chiefly  useful  for 


STORAGE  341 

short-time  storage.  When  placed  in  competition  with  a  house 
equipped  with  a  system  which  gives  positive  control  of  circulation, 
moisture,  temperature,  and  purity  of  atmosphere  they  soon  lose 
business  and  fall  into  disuse. 

The  Fisher  system.  One  of  the  oldest  systems  of  ice  cold 
storage  is  the  Fisher  system.  The  main  essentials  are  an  ice 
chamber  located  above  a  storage  room,  with  an  insulated  water- 
proof floor  separating  the  two.  Openings  are  provided  for  the 
circulation  of  air  from  the  ice  chamber  to  the  storage  room,  and 
flues  extend  from  the  storage  room  to  the  top  of  the  ice  chamber. 
( >ne  who  is  familiar  with  the  operation  of  this  system  says  that 
these  houses  would  do  fair  work  when  new,  but  when  they  became 
old  the  results  were  very  unsatisfactory. 

The  Wickcs  system.  The  Wickes  system  has  been  largely  in- 
troduced in  the  refrigerator-car  service.  The  Wickes  company 
some  years  ago  installed  a  number  of  cold-storage  plants,  but  it 
is  believed  that  they  do  not  now  recommend  their  system  for 
such  use.  The  essential  feature  of  the  Wickes  system  consists 
in  a  basketwork  ice  bunker  composed  of  galvanized  iron  strips. 
Attached  to  the  strips,  where  the  air  flows  into  the  ice  bunker,  are 
projecting  tongues,  which,  it  is  claimed,  give  largely  increased 
cooling  and  moisture-absorbing  surface,  and  dry  and  purify  the 
air  more  thoroughly.  Where  the  air  flows  out  at  the  bottom  of 
the  ice  bunker,  it  passes  over  a  network  of  galvanized  wire, 
which  is  kept  cold  and  moist  by  water  dripping  from  the  melting 
ice  above. 

The  Stevens  system.  This  differs  somewhat  from  other  sys- 
tems of  overhead  icing  in  having  an  arrangement  of  fenders  and 
drop  troughs  that  form  an  open  pan  over  the  entire  floor  of  the 
ice  room  except  at  the  ends  and  sides,  which  are  left  open  for  the 
flow  of  warm  air  upward  from  the  storage  room.  The  cold  air 
from  the  ice  works  down  through  the  open  pan.  The  pan  is 
formed  by  a  series  of  gutters  suspended  between  the  joists  and 
the  capping  pieces  over  the  joists  —  an  arrangement  which  causes 
the  water  to  drip  into  the  gutters  and,  at  the  same  time,  allows  a 
circulation  of  air  between  gutters  and  capping  pieces.  This  sys- 
tem has  the  advantage  of  maintaining  fairly  uniform  temperatures, 
regardless  of  the  amount  of  ice  in  the  ice  chamber. 


342 


THE  APPLE 


The  Nyce  system.  In  this  system  the  cooling  effect  of  melting 
ice  and  the  drying  and  purifying  effect  of  chloride  of  calcium  are 
depended  upon  to  produce  the  desired  result.  It  is  an  overhead 
ice  system,  but  the  air  is  not  circulated  from  the  ice  chamber  into 
the  storage  room.  The  air  of  the  storage  room  is  cooled  by  con- 
tact with  the  metallic  ceiling,  which  also  forms  the  floor  of  the  ice 
chamber.  To  absorb  the  moisture  which  is  given  off  by  the  fruit 
and  is  admitted  by  the  opening  of  doors,  the  well-known  drying 


Fig.  152.    Exterior  of  a  good  farm  storage 

On  the  farm  of  George  Smith,  South  River,  New  Jersey.    (Courtesy  of  Madison  Cooper, 
Calcium,  New  York) 


qualities  of  chloride  of  calcium  are  used.  The  results  obtained  in 
this  way  are  quite  satisfactory  and  compare  favorably  with  those 
of  any  of  the  other  ice  systems  in  general  use. 

The  Jackson  system.  The  Jackson  system  of  cold  storage  is 
one  of  the  most  commonly  used,  and  is  quite  simple.  It  is,  of 
course,  an  overhead  ice  system,  with  air  circulating  from  the  ice 
chamber  down  into  the  storage  room.  The  spaces  between  the 
joists  supporting  the  ice  are  left  open,  and  aprons  of  galvanized 
iron  protect  the  girders  which  support  the  joists  and  conduct  the 
drip  to  the  removable  pans.    In  some  cases  cylindrical  tubes  or 


W//////////m^^^ 


343 


344  THE  APPLE 

tanks  of  galvanized  iron  are  provided.  These  are  filled  with  ice 
and  salt  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  temperature  still  lower 
than  is  possible  with  the  ice  alone. 

The  Dexter  system.  The  Dexter  patents  cover  a  much  more  com- 
plicated apparatus  than  any  system  of  earlier  invention  using  ice  as 
a  refrigerant.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  air  flues  between  the  exterior 
and  interior  walls  of  the  cold-storage  room.  The  cold  air  from  the 
ice  chamber  flows  down  through  one  set  of  flues,  and  as  it  is  warmed 
returns  through  another  set  located  outside  of  the  first  set.  This 
effectually  prevents  the  penetration  of  outside  heat,  and  makes  the 
regulation  of  temperature  comparatively  easy,  even  in  warm  weather. 
This  is  practically  like  putting  one  cold-storage  room  inside  of  an- 
other. To  bring  down  the  temperature  to  the  desired  point,  Dexter 
also  uses  the  galvanized  tubes  or  tanks  filled  with  ice  and  salt. 

Other  systems.  Some  houses  are  cooled  entirely  by  the  gal- 
vanized-iron  tanks.  These  are  built  in  a  variety  of  shapes  and 
sizes,  and  are  usually  placed  around  the  sides  or  through  the  center 
of  a  room  and  filled  with  ice  and  salt  from  above.  Sometimes  the 
ice  is  stored  above,  but  usually  in  a  separate  building,  and  hauled 
up  to  the  floor  above  the  storage  room  as  needed.  This  system  is 
not  adapted  for  houses  of  more  than  one  story,  although  in  some 
cases  the  tanks  are  filled  from  a  corridor  of  the  upper  floor. 

Mechanical  refrigeration.  The  ammonia  system.  A  great  variety 
of  machinery  is  being  patented  and  manufactured  for  use  in  refrig- 
eration. The  aim  of  all  these  machines  is  practically  the  same  — 
to  produce  a  given  temperature  at  a  lessened  cost.  The  ammonia 
process  (which  is  being  used  in  very  large  plants  with  satisfaction) 
is,  briefly,  as  follows  : 

i.  Ammonia  gas  (not  the  "ammonia"  of  commerce)  is  lique- 
fied by  high  pressure  in  a  condenser  surrounded  by  cold  water. 

2.  The  liquid  ammonia  is  run  into  pipes  where  it  is  under  less 
pressure  ;  it  then  becomes  a  gas  again,  producing  intense  cold. 

3.  These  pipes  are  surrounded  by  double  pipe  coils  containing 
brine,  which  is  cooled  by  the  ammonia  and  is  then  run  through 
the  storage  room.  The  temperature  is  easily  controlled  by  increas- 
ing or  decreasing  the  brine  flow. 

4.  The  gas  is  either  pumped  back  to  the  condenser  by  an  air 
pump  (compression  system)  or  run  into  a  tank  of  water  in  which  it 


STORAGE  345 

dissolves  (absorption  system).  In  the  absorption  system  the  water 
is  then  heated  to  drive  the  gas  out  of  it  to  the  condenser. 

5.  A  one-ton  machine  will  cool  197^  pounds  of  water  at  the 
rate  of  10  degrees  a  minute,  or  12,000  cubic  feet  of  space  can  be 
maintained  at  40  degrees  F.,  or  6000  to  8000  cubic  feet  at  34  to 
36  degrees  F. 

In  the  place  of  ammonia,  sulphur  dioxide  (sulphurous  acid)  and 
carbon  dioxide  (carbonic  acid)  are  also  used. 

The  Cooper  brine  system.  In  the  gravity  brine  system  the  tank 
which  contains  the  ice  and  salt  and  the  tank  coils  are  located  at 
a  higher  level  than  the  pipe  coils  which  do  the  air  cooling  in  the 
rooms.  The  brine  standing  in  the  tank  coil  is  cooled  by  contact 
with  the  ice  and  salt  which  surrounds  the  pipes  to  a  lower  temper- 
ature than  the  brine  contained  in  the  secondary  coils,  and  conse- 
quently flows  down  into  these  secondary  coils.  At  the  same  time 
the  brine  from  the  secondary  coils  rises  into  the  primary  coils. 

The  circulating  brine  is  entirely  independent  of  the  brine  which 
runs  out  of  the  tank  as  a  result  of  the  mixture  of  ice  and  salt.  The 
refrigeration  in  the  waste  brine  is  utilized  for  cooling  purposes  by 
running  it  through  a  coil  of  pipe  of  suitable  size  at  any  convenient 
place  in  the  building ;  it  is  afterwards  led  to  the  sewer.  The 
chloride  of  calcium  brine,  on  the  other  hand,  remains  always  in 
the  pipes,  the  only  loss  being  from  leakage.  In  operation,  it  is 
usually  necessary  to  fill  the  tank  once  each  day  with  ice  and  salt, 
and  the  circulation  will  remain  continuous  and  automatic  through 
the  twenty-four  hours.  The  ice  in  the  tank  will  melt  down  four  feet 
per  day. 

The  machine  for  crushing  the  ice  is  generally  located  at  (or 
near)  the  floor  of  the  ice  house.  From  the  crusher,  in  pieces  not 
larger  than  a  hen's  egg,  the  ice  drops  into  a  bucket  elevator, 
which  is  raised  to  a  point  near  the  tank  and  somewhat  above  it, 
and  dumps  the  ice  into  an  inclined  tube  terminating  in  a  flexible 
spout.  This  spout  is  pivoted,  and  will  deliver  ice  to  any  part  of 
the  tank  without  shoveling.  The  only  hand  labor  necessary  on  the 
ice  is  in  the  chopping  and  shoveling  into  the  chute.  Two  men  will 
easily  handle  two  tons  of  ice  an  hour  in  this  way,  and  two  tons  of 
ice  a  day  will  cool  a  storage  house  of  20  carloads'  capacity  during 
average  summer  weather. 


346 


STORAGE 


347 


The  Cooper  chloride  of  calcium  process  for  preventing  forma- 
tion of  frost  on  refrigerating  surfaces  and  for  drying  and  purifying 
the  air  of  cold-storage  rooms  is  a  very  simple  and  effective  improve- 
ment. The  chloride  is  made  to  perform  two  distinct  duties  —  that 
of  keeping  the  pipes  free  from  frost  during  warm  weather,  and 


:::;:;:;::::  y:  ..         :::z~rrr^';::;:;:;:y}:;:y':,  '. ,  ■  ,.,j;///W4VY' 


Transverse  Section 


Fig.  155.    Section  of  storage  building  shown  in  Fig.  152.    (Courtesy  of 
Madison  Cooper,  Calcium,  New  York) 


that  of  maintaining  the  air  of  the  storage  room  at  its  correct  de- 
gree of  humidity  during  cold  weather,  at  the  same  time  helping  to 
keep  the  air  pure.  The  process  is  applicable  not  only  to  the  gravity 
brine  system  but  to  any  of  the  mechanical  systems  of  refrigeration 
in  which  a  refrigerant  is  circulated  through  coils  of  pipe,  or  to  any 
system  in  which  the  rooms  are  cooled  by  refrigerated  metal  surfaces. 


348  THE  APPLE 

A  much  smaller  amount  of  surface  is  required  to  do  a  certain  re- 
frigerating duty  when  the  pipes  are  clean  than  when  the  frost  has 
been  allowed  to  accumulate,  and  the  economy  of  a  device  that  will 
keep  the  refrigerating  pipes  free  from  frost  at  all  times  will  be 
appreciated  by  any  person  familiar  with  the  business,  for  it  is  well 
known  that  frosted  pipes  are  partially  insulated,  the  degree  of 
insulation  depending  on  the  thickness  of  the  coat  of  frost.  The 
Cooper  chloride  of  calcium  process  consists  simply  in  placing  a 
quantity  of  chloride  of  calcium  so  that  the  brine  resulting  from  a 
union  of  the  moisture  in  the  air  of  the  storage  room  with  the  salt 
will  drip  over  the  refrigerating  pipes.  After  passing  down  over 
the  pipes  the  brine  falls  into  a  water-tight  floor,  which  is  provided 
with  drip  connections  to  the  sewer.  This  effectually  and  continually 
disposes  of  the  brine,  which  contains  the  moisture  and  impurities 
from  the  air  of  the  storage  room,  therefore  making  contamination 
from  this  source  impossible. 

The  indirect  circulation  system.  The  auxiliary  method  of  cool- 
ing, known  as  the  indirect  circulation  system,  consists  of  a  space 
for  the  circulation  of  air  between  the  inner  and  outer  insulation 
of  the  cold-storage  building.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  this 
space  need  not  be  more  than  one  inch  in  thickness  to  accomplish 
the  desired  result.  The  air  is  drawn  from  near  the  floor  of  the 
ice  house  by  a  fan  and  forced  through  the  space  provided  for 
it.  After  accomplishing  its  work  by  absorbing  the  heat  which 
penetrates  from  the  outside,  it  is  returned  to  the  ice  house,  where 
it  is  let  in  near  the  ceiling.  The  circulation  not  only  covers  the 
outside  walls  of  the  building  but  the  ceiling  as  well.  The  air  of 
the  indirect  circulation  system  does  not  enter  the  rooms ;  it  merely 
circulates  around  them  in  a  thin  sheet  between  the  interior  and 
exterior  walls  of  the  building.  The  penetration  of  outside  heat 
during  the  summer  is  effectually  prevented,  and  even  in  ex- 
tremes of  hot  weather  no  variation  of  temperature  is  noticeable 
in  the  rooms. 

Ventilation  of  cold-storage  rooms.  Though  most  of  the  impuri- 
ties natural  to  the  air  of  cold-storage  rooms  are  disposed  of  by  being 
frozen  onto  the  pipes,  there  are  certain  gases  for  which  moisture 
has  little  or  no  attraction,  and  these  will  remain  in  circulation  if 
not  displaced  by  forcing  in  fresh  air. 


STORAGE  349 

The  fresh  air  from  the  outside  is  first  taken  through  water  to 
wash  and  rid  it  of  germs  and  impurities  of  various  kinds.  The 
water  bath  also  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  air  to  some  extent 
if  moderately  cool  water  is  used.  From  the  washer  the  air  goes  to 
the  tank,  where  it  is  cooled  to  about  the  temperature  of  the  room 
to  be  ventilated,  and  a  greater  part  of  the  moisture,  which  contains 
the  impurities,  is  frozen  to  the  surface  of  the  cooler.  From  the 
cooling  tank  the  air  is  passed  through  the  drying  tank,  to  rid  it  of 
any  surplus  moisture,  and  then  goes  to  the  coil  room  or  storage 
room,  as  the  case  may  be.  A  dry  and  pure  air  may  be  assured  for 
the  storage  rooms  by  passing  it  last  over  chloride  of  calcium. 

When  the  temperature  of  the  outside  air  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  the  storage  room,  and  the  atmosphere  is  clear  and  dry,  it  is 
safe  to  force  large  quantities  of  fresh  air  into  the  rooms  directly 
from  the  outside  without  previously  treating  it.  When  the  outside 
air  is  too  cold  to  use  in  this  way,  it  should  be  warmed  by  passing 
over  a  steam  coil,  or  in  some  other  way,  to  make  it  of  about  the 
same  temperature  as  the  room  to  be  ventilated.  If  it  is  desired  to 
heat  the  storage  room  to  prevent  freezing,  the  air  may  be  heated 
to  a  somewhat  higher  temperature.  In  a  fairly  large  house  separate 
systems  are  used  for  warm  and  cold  weather  ventilation,  but  in  a 
small  house  one  may  answer  for  both  purposes  by  a  proper  arrange- 
ment of  air  ducts. 

Cold  storage  in  transit.  Sometimes  the  apples  are  stored  for  a 
short  time  when  part  way  to  their  destination.  This  is  called  storage 
in  transit.  Apples  shipped  from  the  West  are  often  placed  in  cold- 
storage  plants  at  Duluth,  St.  Paul,  or  Minneapolis,  pending  ship- 
ment to  a  more  distant  market.  The  cost  of  this  transfer  is  10  cents 
a  hundred  above  the  rate  to  the  final  destination.  This  method 
may  help  the  growers  to  wait  for  a  better  market,  but  it  is  not  the 
best  practice,  owing  to  the  expense  involved.  The  growers  would 
do  much  better  to  have  several  community  storage  plants  in  the 
various  Western  fruit  regions,  in  which  they  could  store  at  reduced 
cost  and  with  more  certainty  of  proper  handling  than  in  the  other 
storage  plants  mentioned. 

Precooling.  The  Western  apple-growers  have  found  it  to  be  a 
decided  advantage  to  precool  the  fruit.  Three  methods  for  accom- 
plishing this  are  in  use:   (I)  the  apples  may  be  precooled  in  an 


350  THE  APPLE 

ice-making  factory  ;  (2)  they  may  be  precooled  in  a  cold-storage 
plant ;  (3)  they  may  be  precooled  in  cars. 

Combination  of  ice  making  and  precooling.  The  first  arrangement 
of  combined  ice  making  and  precooling  seems  to  be  advantageous 
for  an  ice  plant  located  in  a  fruit-growing  district.  It  makes  busi- 
ness for  the  ice  plant  and  furnishes  desirable  facilities  for  the 
grower  at  storage  rates  that  are  less  than  could  be  obtained  at  a 


Fig.  156.    Storage  brings  fruit  and  flowers  together 

Through  the  process  of  modern  storage  certain  varieties  may  be  kept  over  winter  until 
blossoming  time  the  following  year 

plant  that  is  operated  only  for  precooling  and  is  therefore  able  to 
use  its  full  capacity  during  only  a  comparatively  small  part  of 
each  year. 

Cold-storage  precooling.  Certain  rooms  in  a  cold-storage  plant 
may  be  given  over  to  the  precooling  of  apples.  In  this  way  the 
fruit  is  brought  to  the  best  temperature  for  shipping,  and  gen- 
erally carries  through  long  shipments  much  better.  Only  from 
four  to  six  hours  are  required  to  cool  the  fruit,  although  a  day 
is  much  better. 


STORAGE  351 

Precooling  in  cars.  The  precooling  of  fruit  in  cars  is  carried 
out  in  the  following  manner  :  As  soon  as  the  cars  are  loaded,  or 
at  least  as  soon  as  possible  after  loading,  they  are  brought  to  the 
refrigerating  plant  and  connected  with  the  system  by  flexible  ducts, 
which  provide  for  the  passing  of  a  current  of  cold  air  through  the 
car.  The  duct  which  carries  the  inlet  (or  cold  blast)  is  attached 
to  a  false  door  which  exactly  fits  the  open  door  of  the  car.  The 
outlets  (or  suction  ducts)  are  fitted  in  the  same  manner  into  one 
of  the  hatches  of  the  ice  bunker  at  each  end  of  the  car.  Fans  are 
used  on  both  the  inlet  and  the  returns  to  promote  a  rapid  circula- 
tion of  the  cold  air.  Canvas  baffles  are  temporarily  hung  in  the 
car  to  deflect  the  air  current  so  as  to  force  it  between  the  packages 
of  fruit  instead  of  merely  passing  over  the  surface. 

The  number  of  cars  which  may  be  cooled  simultaneously  is 
limited  only  by  the  capacity  of  the  refrigerating  plant  and  the 
number  of  connections.  The  refrigeration  required  per  car  is  equal 
to  about  12  tons  for  twenty-four  hours;  that  is,  if  five  cars  are 
to  be  cooled  at  once  and  within  a  reasonable  time,  it  would  require 
a  refrigerator  plant  of  a  capacity  of  60  tons  of  refrigeration  for 
each  twenty-four  hours. 

With  sufficient  refrigerating  power,  cars  should  be  well  cooled 
in  four  or  five  hours,  including  the  time  required  for  connecting 
and  disconnecting  the  air  ducts  and  filling  the  bunkers  with  ice 
after  cooling  is  finished. 

Precooling  in  cars  saves  handling,  and  the  fruit  is  not  exposed 
to  changes  of  temperature  as  when  being  transferred  from  ware- 
house to  cars.  When  there  is  plenty  of  refrigerating  power  a  low 
temperature  can  be  employed  to  extract  the  heat  rapidly  from  the 
fruit.  It  is  quite  safe  to  employ  temperatures  below  the  freezing 
point  while  the  heat  is  still  in  the  fruit.  A  precooled  car  will  carry 
much  farther  without  being  re-iced  than  one  started  with  warm 
contents. 

Cooperation  in  storage.  No  part  of  apple-growing  better  illus- 
trates the  need  of  cooperation  than  the  establishment  of  storage 
facilities  at  the  point  of  production.  Only  the  large  growers  are 
able  to  have  individual  storage  plants,  but  by  cooperative  methods 
one  or  more  storehouses  can  be  built  that  will  accommodate  the 
fruit  of  all  the  members  at  a  reasonable  cost.    Such  a  storehouse 


352  THE  APPLE 

is  built  first  for  storage  of  apples,  other  articles  taking  second  place. 
It  should  be  conveniently  situated,  both  centrally  for  the  members 
and  with  a  view  to  ease  of  shipping. 

A  storehouse  40  x  100  ft.  will  store  18,000  barrels  and  will 
take  care  temporarily  of  a  crop  of  25,000  barrels.  The  cost  of 
such  a  building  will  vary  according  to  the  material  used,  location, 
labor,  and  other  factors  ;  but  a  good  storehouse  built  of  wood,  well 
insulated,  can  be  completed  for  between  $3000.00  and  $3500.00. 

A  large  concrete  storehouse  using  ammonia  system  of  refriger- 
ation has  just  been  completed  at  Sodus,  New  York.  It  accom- 
modates 75,000  barrels  of  apples  and  was  built  at  a  cost  of  about 
$  1 2  5,000.  Generally  speaking,  storage  buildings  of  this  type  should 
be  built  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed  one  dollar  per  barrel. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
BY-PRODUCTS 


The  utilization  of  the  poorer  grades  of  fruit  is  frequently  of 
great  importance  to  the  apple-grower.  That  portion  of  the  crop 
which  is  of  too  low  a  grade  to  market  in  the  ordinary  way  can 
often  be  made  to  pay  a  large  part  of  the  expense  of  maintaining 


A  good  type  of  a  cheaply 


,  U'<1  ( ider 


(Courtesy  of  St.  Joseph  Fruit  Grower) 


the  orchard  if  it  is  converted  into  some  such  form  as  cider,  jelly,  or 
canned  goods  or  evaporated  apples,  all  of  which  are  easily  marketed. 
Cider.  Cider  or  fresh  apple  juice  is  obtained  from  the  apples 
by  any  one  of  a  large  number  of  machines,  all  of  which  are  built 
on  the  same  principle.  The  apples  must  be  ground  or  shredded, 
and  enough  pressure  applied  to  extract  the  juice  from  the  torn  pulp. 


354 


THE  APPLE 


With  the  best  hand  grinders  and  presses  only  about  2  gallons 
of  cider  can  be  obtained  from  1  bushel  of  apples,  while  with  a 
medium-sized  grinder  and  press  run  by  an  8  or  10  horse-power 
engine  about  4  gallons  may  be  obtained.  It  has  been  found  in 
most  cases  that  there  is  little  or  no  profit  to  be  derived  from 
small  hand  presses,  with  which  the  grinding  and  pressing  often 
cost  from  6  to  7  cents  per  gallon  ;  while  with  the  larger  grinder 
and  press  the  cost  is  only  from  2]  to  2\  cents  per  gallon. 


Fig.  158.    A  cider  press  at  work 
One  of  the  ways  by  which  culls  may  be  utilized.    (Courtesy  of  S/.Josrf/i  Fruit  Grower) 


There  is  a  difference  in  the  quality  of  apple  juice,  due  in  many 
cases  to  a  difference  in  the  cleanliness  of  apples,  grinder,  or  press. 
Small  sound  apples  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  decayed,  dirty 
fruit.  The  early  varieties  of  apples  and  the  lighter-colored,  softer- 
meated  ones  do  not,  as  a  rule,  make  as  good  cider  as  the  solid, 
well-colored  winter  apples. 

Preservation  of  cider.  By  sterilizing  the  apple  juice  and  putting 
it  up  in  air-tight  vessels  the  cider  may  be  kept  sweet  and  in  good 
condition  the  year  round.  It  may  be  sterilized  in  wooden  containers 
as  follows  :  Apply  paraffin  to  the  outside  of  the  wooden  contain- 
ers, then  sterilize  the  inside  and  fill  with  cider  heated  from  149 
to  158  degrees  F. ;  seal  the  containers,  taking  measures  to  relieve 


BY-PRODUCTS 


355 


the  vacuum  produced  by  the  contraction  of  the  juice  on  cooling,  by 
filtering  the  air  through  cotton.  The  best  treatment  for  sterilizing 
in  glass  consists  in  heating  the  cider  in  the  jars  for  an  hour  at 
149  degrees  F.  or  half  an  hour  at  158  degrees. 

Champagne  cider.  Champagne  cider  is  a  clear,  sparkling  fluid 
that  is  considered  delicious  by  some  people.  It  is  an  intensive 
product  derived  from  cider  by  the  process  of  filtering  the  apple 
juice  through  a  large  body  of  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  then  allow- 
ing  the  product  to  age  in  bottles  until  it  has  the  correct  flavor. 


Fig.  159.    A  large,  well-equipped  vines 
St.Jo.u-f/,  J 


and  preserving 
it  Grower) 


factory.    (Courtesy  of 


Vinegar.  For  pure  cider  vinegar  no  mature  apples  are  con- 
sidered too  poor.  Vinegar-making  in  the  ordinary  way  —  by  allow- 
ing the  cider  to  ferment  at  will  in  casks  without  controlling  the 
surrounding  conditions  —  is  not  considered  a  profitable  business. 
By  regulating  the  temperature  and  adding  mother  of  vinegar  and 
cultures  of  acetic-acid  ferment,  fairly  good  vinegar  may  be  made, 
although  the  process  is  both  slow  and  wasteful.  The  processes 
of  fermentation  can  be  greatly  hastened  by  the  addition  of  equal 
parts  of  fermented  cider  and  old  vinegar,  but  this  will  require  a 
large  stock  of  old  vinegar. 

A  very  good  vinegar  can  be  made  by  using  a  vinegar  generator, 
in  which  the  cider  passes  slowly  through  a  mass  of  shavings  and 


356  THE  APPLE 

is  thoroughly  aerated,  thus  hastening  fermentation.  The  generator 
may  consist  of  a  wooden  tank  4x8  ft.,  with  holes  near  the  bot- 
tom for  the  admission  of  air,  which  is  filled  with  beech  shavings 
and  is  fitted,  about  a  foot  from  the  top,  with  a  wooden  disk  perfo- 
rated to  allow  the  entrance  of  the  cider,  which  should  be  evenly 
distributed  over  it  by  means  of  a  dumper.  The  vinegar  can  be 
drawn  from  the  tank  by  means  of  a  siphon  of  glass  tubing  inserted 
in  a  hole  near  the  bottom.  The  temperature  in  the  generator  should 
be  as  near  as  possible  to  95  degrees.  This  may  be  controlled  by 
regulating  the  supply  of  air,  some  of  the  air  holes  being  shut  off 
when  the  temperature  rises  too  high  and  opened  when  it  falls  too 
low.  In  order  to  acidify  the  shavings  and  start  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation, the  generator  should  be  charged  with  strong  vinegar, 
and  again  with  vinegar  in  which  some  concentrated  grape  juice  has 
been  mixed.  This  generator  will  take  care  of  about  20  gallons  of 
the  stock  solution  (a  mixture  of  weak  vinegar  and  fermented  cider) 
every  twenty-four  hours. 

Jelly.  A  jelly  suitable  for  table  use  can  be  made  by  adding 
1  pound  of  sugar  (granulated)  to  5  pounds  of  cider.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  cider  with  20  pounds  of  sugar  will  make  about  40  pounds 
of  jelly  at  a  cost  of  about  3  cents  per  pound  for  the  finished 
product. 

Pomace.  Apple  pomace,  or  the  residue  left  after  the  cider  or 
juice  is  extracted,  is  thought  by  many  to  be  of  little  or  no  value. 
This  is  a  mistake.  Germany,  France,  and  other  foreign  countries 
every  year  import  large  quantities  of  pomace  from  America  to  use 
in  the  manufacture  of  wines  and  for  other  purposes.  In  191 2  apple 
pomace  packed  in  barrels  was  quoted  in  the  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia, 
market  at  1  cent  a  pound. 

Pomace  is  sown  by  some  nurserymen  in  furrows,  and  the  seed- 
lings thus  produced  are  used  for  stock  upon  which  to  bud  or  graft 
well-known  varieties.  Sometimes  the  seeds  are  washed  from  the 
pomace  and  planted  without  the  pulp. 

Apple  pomace  as  a  food  for  stock  has  been  considered  too 
watery  to  pay  for  the  hauling,  although  in  point  of  fact  it  contains 
less  water  than  many  root  crops.  Although  used  for  this  purpose 
by  a  few  farmers,  the  general  opinion  has  been  that  it  is  of  little 
value,  and  in  some  cases  it  has  the  reputation  of  being  an  unsafe 


BY-PRODUCTS 


357 


or  unhealthy  feed  and,  when  fed  to  cows,  of  causing  shrinkage 
in  milk.  This  applies  to  the  pomace  containing  straw  as  well  as 
to  that  from  the  more  modem  mills  in  which  no  straw  is  used. 

The  fresh  pomace  ferments  quickly  when  exposed  to  the  air, 
and  probably  for  this  reason  the  trials  which  have  been  made  in 
feeding  it  have  not  resulted  satisfactorily.  A  Massachusetts  farmer 
of  the  40's  is  reported  to  have  preserved  pomace  by  placing  it  in 
a  pit  under  his  barn,  thus  anticipating  the  silo.  It  was  kept  in  this 
wax  for  months,  and  fed  to  cows  during  the  winter.  It  has  now 
been  fully  demonstrated  that  the  pomace  can  be  preserved  in  the 
modern  silo  without  difficulty,  and  apple-pomace  silage  is  getting 
to  be  appreciated  as  a  cheap  and  altogether  healthy  feeding  stuff. 
Its  composition  as  compared  with  corn  silage  is  shown  by  the 
following  averages  of  several  analyses  : 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  APPLE-POMACE  SILAGE  AND 
CORN   SILAGE 


Constituents 

Apple-Pi  »mai  b  Silage 

Ciikn  Silage 

Water 

Ash 

Per  cent 
SO.2 

•9 
1.6 

4-5 
1 1.8 

1.0 

1 00.0 

Per  1  cut 

744 

i-5 

5.8 

15.0 
1.1 

1 00.0 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

Fat 

Experiments  with  sheep  have  shown  that  apple-pomace  silage 
compares  favorably  in  digestibility  with  corn  silage,  over  70  per 
cent  of  the  total  dry  matter,  40  per  cent  of  the  fat,  60  per  cent  of 
the  fiber,  and  nearly  85  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  (starch, 
sugar,  etc.)  being  digested.  Dairy  cows  which  were  fed  from  25  to 
50  pounds  per  day  of  pomace  silage  for  five  months  showed  no  ill 
effects  of  any  kind  either  in  health  or  in  the  flow  of  milk,  and  the 
quality  of  both  the  milk  and  the  butter  was  not  injured.  These  re- 
sults from  actual  experiments  by  farmers  and  Station  men  seem  to 
demonstrate  that  the  feeding  value  of  this  material  is  worth  con- 
sidering.   In  fact,  no  farmer  who  has  a  silo  and  lives  conveniently 


358  THE  APPLE 

near  a  cider  mill  where  the  material  can  be  had  for  the  hauling 
should  fail  to  make  use  of  it. 

In  ensiling  apple  pomace  no  special  care  is  necessary.  It  is  the 
general  practice  simply  to  dump  or  shovel  it  into  the  silo,  either  on 
top  of  corn  silage  or  alone,  according  to  circumstances.  It  should 
be  leveled  off,  and  may  be  allowed  to  lie  uncovered  and  unweighted 
until  wanted.  A  layer  on  top,  about  three  inches  deep,  usually 
spoils,  and  in  doing  so  protects  the  remainder  and  keeps  it  in  good 
condition  far  into  the  spring. 

Marmalade.  A  better  class  of  apples  is  required  for  marmalade 
than  for  ordinary  cider.  It  has  been  found  advantageous  to  cook 
the  apples  in  cider  rather  than  in  water.  It  has  also  been  found 
more  economical  to  cook  the  apples  without  previously  paring  and 
coring  them,  the  cooked  product  being  run  through  a  colander.  In 
this  way  the  loss  is  not  over  5  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  fruit, 
while  the  loss  from  paring  and  coring  the  apples  averages  about 
25  per  cent,  to  say  nothing  of  the  extra  time  spent  in  the  operation. 

With  apples  at  30  cents  a  bushel,  marmalade  costs  for  mate- 
rial less  than  3  cents  a  pound  of  finished  product,  an  average  of 
1 16  pounds  being  made  from  80  pounds  of  sliced  apples,  8  gallons 
of  fresh  cider,  and  35  pounds  of  sugar. 

Evaporation  on  a  small  scale.  The  following  article  by  II.  F. 
Grinstead  describes  in  a  brief  manner  the  evaporation  of  fruit  on 
a  small  scale  : x 

Instead  of  the  old  method  of  sun  drying,  we  use  a  portable  evaporator.  We 
have  been  successful  with  all  kinds  of  fruit. 

Our  evaporator  is  constructed  of  wood  except  the  bottom  and  firebox,  which 
are  of  sheet  iron.  The  evaporator  proper  is  three  feet  wide  by  five  long,  is  two 
feet  high  above  the  firebox  or  furnace,  has  a  partition  in  the  center  with  cleats 
nailed  on  the  sides  to  support  the  trays,  there  being  ten  of  these,  five  fitting  in 
on  either  side  of  the  partition.  It  has  a  rooflike  cover  and  small  holes  for 
ventilation  both  above  and  below  the  trays.  We  set  it  on  top  of  the  furnace, 
the  evaporation  being  accomplished  by  radiation  from  the  sheet-iron  surface. 
No  pipes  are  run  through  the  evaporator,  the  draft  from  the  furnace  being 
carried  off  by  a  few  joints  of  common  stovepipe  on  the  outside.  Two  doors  on 
the  side  of  the  evaporator  admit  the  trays,  which  are  two  inches  deep  and 
constructed  of  wood,  except  the  bottom,  which  is  of  half-inch-mesh  galvanized 
wire  netting.  During  the  process  of  drying,  the  trays  are  shifted  in  such  a 
way  that  the  top  tier  is  brought  nearer  the  fire,  the  drying  being  finished  in  the 

1  Copyright  by  Doubleday,  Fage  &  Company. 


BY-PRODUCTS  359 

lowest  position.  For  best  results  I  find  that  the  fruit  should  not  be  spread 
too  thickly  on  the  trays  —  less  than  two  inches  —  and  should  be  stirred  once 
or  twice  during  evaporation. 

We  do  not  undertake  to  peel  any  considerable  quantity  of  fruit  with  knives, 
but  use  a  paring  machine,  which  also  slices  the  apples  into  rings.  However,  it 
is  necessary  to  do  some  hand  work,  and  for  this  we  have  short-bladed  knives 
with  smooth  wood  handles  that  will  not  cramp  the  hand. 

While  it  does  not  improve  the  quality,  the  trade  demands  that  apples  should 
be  white.  The  fruit  is  subjected  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  as  soon  as 
pared  and  sliced,  and  before  being  put  into  the  evaporator.  Any  tight  box 
with  cleats  nailed  to  the  sides  into  which  the  trays  may  be  placed  will  answer, 
the  sulphur  being  burned  below.  We  do  this  by  placing  a  few  live  coals  in  an 
old  pot,  adding  a  few  sticks  of  brimstone  at  a  time  till  the  bleaching  is  done, 
which  is  in  from  thirty  minutes  to  an  hour.  We  use  half  a  pound  of  sulphur 
to  a  hundred  pounds  of  green  fruit. 

We  burn  wood,  but  coal  will  answer  as  well  if  the  furnace  is  constructed  for 
its  use.  In  our  small  evaporator  about  five  or  six  hours  are  required  for  drying, 
depending,  of  course,  on  the  kind  of  fruit.  Where  a  sufficient  force  is  kept  at 
work  it  is  possible  to  make  two  runs  a  day.  The  fruit  that  is  pared  and  sliced 
in  the  afternoon  may  be  dried  the  next  morning,  but  in  the  case  of  apples  the 
bleaching  must  be  done  before  they  discolor. 

The  fruit  will  not  have  the  hard,  dry  appearance  of  the  sun-dried  product, 
as  more  of  the  juice  is  retained,  the  outside  being  sufficiently  seared  to  preserve 
it.  You  can  tell  when  it  is  dry  by  squeezing  some  of  it.  If  it  is  spongy  and 
falls  apart  when  released,  it  has  dried  sufficiently.  Compare  it  with  the  com- 
mercial product ;  it  should  not  be  quite  so  dry  when  removed  from  the  evap- 
orator, as  it  has  to  be  cured  for  several  days  before  packing.  We  pour  the 
fruit  on  a  clean  floor  of  a  room  from  which  flies  are  excluded,  and  turn  it  over 
every  few  days,  that  the  whole  may  become  more  uniform,  the  drier  pieces 
absorbing  moisture  from  those  containing  a  surplus. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  state  here  that  we  use  all  apple  and  peach  parings 
for  vinegar.  They  are  put  in  a  clean  barrel  and  sufficient  rainwater  added  to 
cover  them.  In  a  few  claws  fermentation  has  begun,  and  as  soon  as  disintegra- 
tion has  commenced  the  liquid  is  strained  off,  poured  into  another  barrel,  and 
allowed  to  stand  till  it  is  vinegar. 

Evaporation  on  a  large  scale.1  There  is  an  increasing  demand 
for  dried  apples  of  the  highest  quality.  The  tendency  has  some- 
times been  to  make  quantity  at  the  expense  of  quality,  but  prices 
are  governed  by  the  grade  as  well  as  by  the  supply.  The  cleanest, 
whitest  fruit,  well  cored,  well  trimmed,  well  bleached,  well  ringed, 
and  well  dried,  is  most  in  demand.  Carelessness  in  any  particular 
injures  the  product. 

1  After  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  zgi,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


360 


THE  APPLE 


The  economic  usefulness  of  an  apple  evaporator  is  chiefly  through 
its  utilization  of  windfalls  and  the  poorer  grades  of  fruit  which 
cannot  be  marketed  to  good  advantage  in  a  fresh  state,  and  it  is 
these  grades  that  are  most  often  evaporated.  But  the  magnitude 
of  the  apple  crop  also  greatly  influences  the  grade  of  the  evaporated 
product.  In  seasons  of  abundant  crops  and  low  prices  for  fresh 
fruit,  large  quantities  of  apples  that  would  ordinarily  be  barreled 
are  evaporated  and  the  grade  of  stock  produced  is  correspondingly 
improved.    On  the  other  hand,  in  years  of  scanty  crops,  when  all 


A  pr 


Fig.  1 60.    Apple  evaporator 
solution  of  bumper  crops  and  culls.    (Courtesy  of  Sf.  Joseph  Fruit  G> 


apples  that  can  possibly  be  shipped  are  in  demand  at  high  prices, 
only  the  very  poorest  fruit  is  usually  evaporated,  thus  lowering  the 
grade  of  the  output. 

During  the  development  of  the  industry  the  machinery  and 
other  appliances  used  have  undergone  great  changes,  until  at  the 
present  time  a  high  degree  of  perfection  has  been  attained. 

Apples  suitable  for  evaporation.  The  commercial  grading  of 
evaporated  apples  is  based  primarily  on  appearance  rather  than 
on  dessert  quality,  and  the  fact  that  one  variety  may  make  a  better 
flavored   product  than  another  is  not  considered.     As   a  rule,  a 


BY-PRODUCTS 


36i 


product  of  high  commercial  grade  can  be  made  from  any  sort  which 
has  a  firm  texture  and  bleaches  to  a  satisfactory  degree  of  white- 
ness. A  variety  of  high  dessert  quality,  such  as  the  Northern  Spy, 
may  be  expected  to  make  an  evaporated  product  of  correspondingly 
high  flavor. 

In  sections  where  the  Baldwin  apple  is  grown  extensively,  it  is 
in  demand  at  the  commercial  evaporators,  as  it  meets  the  require- 
ments in  a  fair  degree  and  is  available  in  relatively  large  quantities. 
In  the  Hen  Davis  sections  that  variety  supplies  a  similar  demand. 

Most  early  varieties  lack  sufficient  firmness  of  texture  for  the 
best  results  and  are  undesirable  on  this  account.    On  the  other 


SLiMHtonapt  >  ■  ■  ■  ■  -  /immm.        1         nim^ia  tnMJ* 

UUtaMf—                                               — " — " 

Fig.  161.    An  up-to-date  evaporator 

Evaporation  and  its  application  to  apples  is  one  of  the  profitable  solutions  to 

overproduction  and  wastes 

hand,  some  comparatively  early  sorts,  such  as  the  Gravenstein  and 
the  Summer  Pearmain,  are  considerably  prized  in  some  sections. 
The  dessert  quality  of  the  latter  is  especially  high. 

Similarly,  the  product  made  from  other  sorts  possesses  qualities 
that  are  due  more  or  less  to  varietal  characteristics.  For  instance, 
that  from  the  Esopus  is  said  to  be  unusually  white.  The  Hubbard- 
ston  and  varieties  of  the  russet  group  also  make  very  white  stock, 
the  latter  giving  a  relatively  large  amount  of  stock,  by  weight,  to 
a  given  quantity  of  fresh  fruit.  The  Limbertwig  is  said  to  produce 
from  1 1  to  2  pounds  a  bushel  more  of  dried  stock  than  most  sorts 
do.  but  it  is  not  so  white  as  that  from  some  other  varieties. 


362  THE  APPLE 

Paring.  In  power  evaporating  a  long  table  common  to  all  the 
parers  is  generally  used.  The  necessary  carriers  for  removing  the 
apples  and  the  parings  operate  beneath  the  table.  If  individual 
tables  are  used  in  such  cases,  a  small  sluice  may  connect  each  table 
with  a  carrier  which  works  just  beneath  the  floor,  and  delivers  to 
an  elevator  that  connects  with  the  bleacher.  By  thus  placing  below 
the  floor  the  carrier  which  takes  the  fruit  from  the  tables,  the 
space  above  is  left  unobstructed,  which  would  not  be  the  case  were 
the  individual  tables  connected  with  a  common  carrier.  In  nearly 
all  the  evaporators  the  paring  and  trimming  are  done  by  Women 
and  girls. 

Trimming.  In  paring  the  fruit,  there  is  usually  more  or  less 
skin  left  around  the  stem  and  calyx  of  the  apples  and  any  irregular 
places  that  may  occur.  There  will  be  wormholes,  decayed  spots, 
and  other  blemishes  which  will  detract  from  the  appearance  of  the 
product  if  allowed  to  remain.  Even  bruises  are  objected  to  by 
the  most  exacting  operators.  Hence  all  such  defects  are  cut  out  as 
soon  as  the  fruit  is  pared,  if  the  highest  grade  of  product  is  to  be 
made.  This  is  done  with  an  ordinary  straight-back,  sharp-pointed 
knife  having  a  blade  about  three  inches  long. 

Bleaching.  In  order  to  make  the  fruit  as  white  as  possible,  it  is 
usually  subjected  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur.  The  apparatus 
in  which  the  fumes  are  applied  is  called  a  bleacher.  The  form 
and  manner  of  construction  vary  greatly,  as  do  most  of  the  other 
appliances.  The  requisites  are  a  perfectly  tight  compartment 
having  a  capacity  commensurate  with  the  size  of  the  evaporator 
and  the  necessary  facilities  for  burning  the  sulphur. 

Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  bleacher  for  evaporators  in  which 
an  engine  is  installed  is  the  "  power  "  (or  "  horizontal  ")  type.  Its 
characteristic  feature  is  the  movable  bottom  (or  false  bottom),  on 
which  the  fruit  is  carried  through  the  bleacher.  This  bleacher  con- 
sists of  a  tight  box  about  3  feet  square  and  20  or  more  feet  long. 

The  apples  are  conveyed  from  the  paring  room  to  the  bleacher 
by  a  carrier  or  elevator,  similar  to  those  already  referred  to,  and 
are  dropped  into  one  end  of  the  bleacher,  falling  on  the  movable 
bottom,  which  consists  of  an  endless  belt  of  lugs  turned  by  the 
proper  gear  attachment.  The  speed  of  movement  is  governed  by 
the  gearing,  and  is  adjusted  to  correspond  with  the  time  it  is 


BY-PRODUCTS  363 

desired  to  keep  the  fruit  in  the  bleacher  and  the  length  of  the  latter. 
When  the  fruit  has  been  carried  through  the  bleacher,  it  passes 
to  the  sheer,  which  is  located  near  by;  provision  for  the  escape  of 
the  fumes  may  be  supplied  by  ventilators  above  the  operators.  In 
the  power  bleacher,  where  in  some  cases  it  is  more  convenient  to 
burn  sulphur  at  some  distance  from  the  bleacher,  a  small  sheet-iron 
stove  about  I  foot  square  and  1 2  or  1  5  inches  high  is  used  ;  this 
is  connected  with  the  bleacher  by  means  of  a  small  stovepipe. 

There  are  no  definite  standards  as  to  the  time  required  for  bleach- 
ing, the  amount  of  sulphur  necessary  to  accomplish  the  desired  end, 
etc.  The  aim  is  to  treat  the  apples  until  enough  of  the  fumes  have 
been  absorbed  to  prevent  discoloration  after  they  are  sliced  and  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  If  it  is  found  that  the  fruit  is  not  retaining  its 
clean,  white  appearance,  either  the  length  of  time  that  the  fruit 
is  kept  in  the  bleacher  should  be  increased  or  more  sulphur  should 
be  burned.  In  many  cases  the  bleaching  process  is  doubtless 
continued  much  longer  than  is  necessary  for  the  desired  results. 
Until  some  definite  standards  are  established  and  recognized,  the 
greatest  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  bleach  more  than  the 
minimum  required  to  maintain  the  desired  color  a  reasonable 
length  of  time. 

From  the  information  at  hand,  it  seems  that  the  length  of  time 
necessary  for  bleaching  varies  from  twenty  minutes  to  an  hour  and 
a  half,  although  it  may  be  regulated  in  a  measure  by  the  amount 
of  sulphur  burned.  The  average  time  seems  to  be  about  forty-five 
minutes. 

The  estimates  regarding  the  amount  of  sulphur  used  to  bleach 
a  ton  of  fruit  vary  from  4  or  5  to  20  pounds,  though  but  little 
information  of  a  definite  character  can  be  obtained  at  present. 

Slicing.  There  are  several  styles  of  slicers  now  obtainable  which 
are  operated  by  hand,  foot,  or  mechanical  power.  In  general  they 
consist  of  a  table  in  which  a  series  of  knives  is  so  arranged  that 
the  apples,  when  carried  over  them  by  a  revolving  arm,  are  cut  into 
slices.  In  at  least  one  type  the  apples  are  delivered  to  the  slicing 
table  by  an  attachment  which  works  automatically. 

The  capacity  of  slicers  varies  somewhat,  as  does  the  industry  of 
the  men  who  operate  them,  but  from  200  to  400  bushels  for  a  day 
of  ten  hours  may  be  expected  of  a  good  machine. 


364  THE  APPLE 

The  slices  are  one-fourth  inch  thick,  and  should  be  cut,  as  far 
as  possible,  at  right  angles  to  the  hole  made  through  the  axis  of 
the  apple  when  the  core  is  removed  by  the  parer,  thus  producing 
the  "  rings,"  which  is  the  form  most  desired.  Other  things  being 
equal,  that  fruit  is  sliced  the  best  which  contains  the  largest 
proportion  of  rings,  and  this  point  is  given  more  or  less  weight  in 
grading  the  finished  product. 

Quartering  machines  are  used  when  it  is  desired  to  dry  the  fruit 
in  quarters  instead  of  in  slices.  When  it  is  desired  to  evaporate 
apples  in  quarters  or  sixths,  they  are  run  through  machines  which 
cut  them  accordingly,  the  cutting  being  done  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion from  the  slicing ;  that  is,  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  apple  instead  of  at  right  angles  to  it. 

If  the  apples  are  to  be  dried  whole,  they  are  transferred  from 
the  bleacher  directly  to  the  drying  compartment  without  further 
treatment. 

Crates  and  trays.  Crates  and  trays  are  essential  accessories  in 
the  drying.  A  relatively  large  supply  facilitates  the  handling  of  the 
fruit  both  before  and  after  it  is  pared,  especially  when  there  are 
no  elevators  or  carriers  to  convey  the  fruit  from  one  point  in  the 
evaporator  to  another.  They  are  usually  made  to  hold  about  a 
bushel.  The  bottoms,  and  preferably  the  sides  also,  of  the  crates 
in  which  the  apples  are  bleached  should  be  made  of  narrow  slats 
to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  the  sulphur  fumes  through  the  fruit. 

Racks.  In  the  construction  of  racks  on  which  fruit  is  to  be 
dried,  only  the  best  grades  of  galvanized-wire  netting  should  be 
selected.  If  poorer  grades  are  used,  the  acids  of  the  fruit  are  likely 
to  act  on  the  metals,  producing  undesirable  results. 

When  the  fruit  has  been  placed  in  the  drying  compartment  of 
an  evaporator,  of  whatever  type  it  may  be,  it  has  reached  the  most 
critical  stage  in  the  whole  process  of  evaporation,  and  it  is  here 
that  the  greatest  care  and  skill  are  required  to  insure  the  best  results. 

Capacity  of  floor  space  and  racks.  In  the  case  of  kiln  evapora- 
tors the  sliced  fruit  is  evenly  spread  on  the  floor  to  the  depth  of 
from  4  to  6  inches.  A  kiln  20  feet  square  will  hold  the  slices  of 
from  1 20  to  150  bushels  of  fresh  fruit,  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  waste  in  the  apples  and  the  exact  depth  to  which  they  are  spread 
on  the  floor. 


BY-PRODUCTS  365 

If  the  fruit  is  in  quarters  or  is  dried  whole,  it  may  be  spread 
somewhat  deeper,  since  in  these  forms  it  does  not  pack  down  so 
closely  as  when  in  slices,  and  hence  the  circulation  of  hot  air 
through  it  is  not  impeded  if  the  depth  is  somewhat  increased. 

The  fruit  is  generally  put  on  the  floor  of  the  kiln  as  fast  as  it  is 
sliced,  and  the  fire  is  started  in  the  furnace  below  as  soon  as  the 
floor  is  filled,  or,  in  many  cases,  before  it  is  entirely  covered. 

Oiling  the  floors  and  racks.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  treat  the 
floor  of  a  kiln  with  tallow  to  prevent  the  fruit  from  sticking  to  it. 
This  is  done  every  few  days,  or  as  often  as  conditions  warrant. 
Sometimes  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  tallow  and  boiled  linseed 
oil  is  used  for  this  purpose. 

At  each  filling  of  the  racks,  where  these  are  used,  the  surface 
of  the  wire  netting  is  lightly  wiped  over  with  a  cloth  moistened  in 
lard.  This  prevents  the  fruit  from  sticking  to  the  netting  and 
keeps  it  clean. 

Turning  the  fruit.  When  kiln  driers  are  used,  the  fruit  is 
turned  occasionally  to  prevent  its  burning  or  sticking  to  the  floor 
by  remaining  in  contact  with  it  too  long,  and  to  insure  the  most 
uniform  drying  that  is  possible.  The  interval  between  turnings 
varies  with  different  operators,  with  the  condition  of  the  fruit,  and 
with  the  degree  of  heat  maintained.  For  the  first  five  or  six  hours 
it  is  generally  turned  about  every  two  hours,  and  more  frequently 
as  the  fruit  becomes  drier,  until  when  nearly  dry  it  may  require 
turning  every  half  hour. 

The  objects  to  be  obtained  by  turning  must  be  kept  in  mind. 
The  fruit  should  be  examined  from  time  to  time  and  turned  often 
enough  to  prevent  scorching  or  sticking  and  to  insure  uniform 
drying. 

Heating  apparatus.  Satisfactory  results  are  so  dependent  on 
the  heating  apparatus  that  this  becomes  one  of  the  most  important 
considerations  with  an  evaporator.  In  the  smaller  types  of  evapo- 
rators, where  comparatively  little  is  involved  and  the  question  of 
fuel  does  not  enter  seriously  into  consideration,  almost  any  small 
stove  commensurate  with  the  size  of  the  particular  evaporator  in 
question  may  be  used.  In  the  kiln  evaporators  large  furnaces 
are  now  most  commonly  used.  These  are  specially  designed  for 
the   purpose,   and   are    provided    with    relatively   large   fire   pots, 


366  THE  APPLE 

correspondingly  large  ash  pits,  and  large  radiating  surfaces.  As 
it  is  necessary  to  burn  a  relatively  large  quantity  of  fuel  in  a  given 
time,  the  size  of  the  grate  is  made  with  this  end  in  view.  For  a 
kiln  floor  20  feet  square,  or  400  square  feet  of  surface,  the  grate 
surface  is  usually  about  3  feet  in  diameter,  containing  from  5  to 
7  square  feet. 

As  to  the  most  satisfactory  length  of  pipe  connecting  the  fur- 
nace and  chimney,  opinions  differ.  The  furnace,  with  two  flanges 
for  attaching  the  pipe,  is  placed  in  the  center ;  the  pipe  from  each 
flange  is  then  extended  to  the  side  of  the  room  opposite  the  chim- 
ney, and  from  this  point  the  two  sections,  extending  in  opposite 
directions,  follow  the  wall,  at  a  distance  of  2  or  3  feet  from  it,  to 
the  chimney.  In  a  kiln  20  feet  square  some  65  or  70  feet  are 
thus  required.  Ten-inch  pipe  is  a  common  size  to  use  for  this 
purpose,  and  is  placed  about  3  feet  below  the  kiln  floor. 

In  kiln  evaporators  the  steam  pipes  are  generally  placed  in  as 
close  proximity  to  the  floor  of  the  drying  room  as  is  practicable  — 
within  a  foot  or  even  closer.  That  every  steam  pipe  nearest  the 
floor  may  supply  the  greatest  amount  of  heat,  it  should  have  its 
own  return  to  the  main  return  of  the  system. 

One-inch  pipe  is  generally  used  for  such  systems.  No  very 
definite  data  are  available  in  regard  to  the  amount  necessary  to 
supply  the  requisite  heat.  Several  kilns,  however,  which  are  said 
to  work  admirably,  have  about  650  running  feet  of  pipe  for  every 
100  square  feet  of  floor  space.  One  half  of  this  is  "riser,"  the 
other  half  "  return." 

Fuel.  For  kiln  evaporators  using  the  common  type  of  furnace, 
hard  coal  is  probably  the  most  satisfactory  fuel,  and  requires  less 
attention  than  any  other.  Coke  is  sometimes  used,  and  if  it  were 
as  satisfactory  as  coal,  it  would  be  the  cheaper  fuel ;  but  it  requires 
much  attention,  and  even  with  the  best  of  care  it  is  difficult  to 
maintain  a  uniform  degree  of  heat.  A  combination  of  coal  and 
coke  is  sometimes  used  with  satisfactory  results,  in  which  case  the 
faults  and  advantages  of  the  one  tend,  in  a  measure,  to  equalize 
those  of  the  other. 

In  a  steam-heated  plant  soft  coal  serves  the  purpose  in  a  satis- 
factory way,  and  in  most  apple-growing  sections  is  probably  cheaper 
than  any  other  fuel  that  is  readily  available. 


BY-PRODUCTS  367 

While  the  amount  of  fuel  necessary  to  dry  a  given  quantity  of 
fruit  will  vary  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  weather,  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  furnace,  the  construction  of  the  kiln,  the  percentage 
of  moisture  to  be  left  in  the  fruit,  and  various  other  things,  it  is 
roughly  estimated  that  a  ton  of  hard  coal  will  make  a  ton  of  dried 
fruit.  Probably  the  average  requirement  is  more  than  this.  Coke 
is  a  little  more  efficient,  2600  to  2700  pounds  of  apples  being 
evaporated,  it  is  claimed,  by  a  ton  of  fuel. 

A  good  steam  system  should  require  considerably  less  than  a 
ton  of  soft  coal  to  a  ton  of  dried  fruit,  one  estimate  being  about 
half  this  amount. 

Temperature.  A  temperature  which  has  been  suggested  by  some 
operators  is  1 50  degrees  F.  or  more  when  the  fruit  is  first  put  into 
the  drying  compartment,  dropping  to  about  125.  degrees  as  the  dry- 
ing process  nears  completion.  Sufficient  and  proper  provision  for 
controlling  the  indraft  of  cold  air  below  the  fruit  will  aid  in  main- 
taining the  desired  temperature. 

Time  required  for  proper  drying.  A  good  kiln  evaporator 
should  dry  a  floor  of  slices  in  from  ten  to  fourteen  hours,  twelve 
hours  being  the  average  time.  Where  the  fruit  is  handled  on 
racks  the  time  required  is  much  shorter,  but  the  conditions 
are  quite  different,  the  fruit  seldom  being  more  than  two  inches 
thick  on  the  racks  ;  from  four  to  six  hours  is  the  time  required 
for  slices. 

It  is  estimated  that  quarters  will  require  from  eighteen  to  twenty- 
four  hours  in  the  average  kiln,  while  the  time  for  whole  apples 
will  range  from  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours. 

If  the  atmospheric  conditions  are  heavy  and  damp  the  drying 
is  retarded,  and  under  some  conditions  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
dry  the  fruit  thoroughly.  During  windy  weather  it  is  difficult  to 
regulate  the  heat,  especially  if  the  walls  are  poorly  constructed 
so  that  the  draft  of  cold  air  into  the  furnace  cannot  be  controlled. 

How  far  to  carry  the  drying.  The  fruit  should  be  so  dry  that 
when  a  handful  of  slices  is  pressed  together  firmly  into  a  ball,  they 
will  be  springy  enough  to  separate  at  once  upon  being  released  from 
the  hand.  In  this  condition,  there  will  be  no  fruit,  or  only  an 
occasional  piece,  that  has  any  visible  moisture  on  the  surface.  In 
a  slice  of  average  dryness,  it  should  not  be  possible  to  press  any 


368  THE  APPLE 

free  juice  into  view  in  a  freshly  made  cross  section  of  it.  The 
general  feel  of  the  fruit,  as  it  is  handled,  should  be  soft,  velvety, 
and  leathery. 

Curing  room.  When  a  quantity  of  fruit  is  considered  dry  enough, 
it  is  removed  from  the  kiln  and  put  in  a  pile  on  the  floor  of  the 
curing  room.  Every  day  or  two  the  pile  should  be  thoroughly 
shoveled  over  to  make  the  changes  which  take  place  uniform. 
Thus  managed,  the  pile  in  a  few  days  will  become  thoroughly 
homogeneous.  The  pieces  that  were  too  dry  will  have  absorbed 
moisture,  the  superfluous  moisture  of  other  pieces  will  have  dis- 
appeared, and  the  entire  mass  may  be  expected  to  reach  the 
condition   above   described. 

Waste.  All  waste,  such  as  small  apples,  imperfect  fruit,  par- 
ings, and  trimmings,  in  the  large  evaporators  is  generally  used 
for  vinegar  stock. 

It  is  generally  estimated  that  the  waste  from  a  given  quantity  of 
evaporated  apples  will  pay  the  cost  of  the  fuel  for  evaporating  that 
quantity  of  fruit ;  that  is,  putting  it  on  a  bushel  basis,  the  waste 
from  a  bushel  will  pay  for  fuel  to  evaporate  both  the  white  fruit 
and  the  waste  from  that  bushel.  While  in  some  instances,  when 
the  price  of  such  stock  is  low,  this  estimate  may  be  too  high,  it 
not  infrequently  happens  that  the  waste  more  than  pays  for 
the  fuel. 

Proportion  of  evaporated  fruit  from  a  bushel  of  fresh  apples. 
An  average  weight  of  evaporated  apples  from  a  bushel  of  fresh 
fruit  is  about  6\  pounds  of  white  fruit  and  3I  pounds  of  waste. 
When  dried  whole,  they  will  make  from  j\  to  8]  pounds  of  evapo- 
rated fruit  per  bushel  of  fresh  fruit. 

Grading  and  packing.  Evaporated  apples  should  be  graded  as 
follows : 

Fancy.  This  is  very  white,  clean  stock  free  from  all  pieces  of 
skin  and  other  objectionable  portions,  which  should  be  removed  in 
trimming,  and  with  a  good  proportion  of  the  slices  in  rings. 

Choice.  This  denotes  a  grade  intermediate  between  Fancy  and 
Prime,  not  quite  clean  enough  for  Fancy,  yet  more  nearly  free 
from  imperfections  than  the  Prime  grade  demands. 

Prime.  This  must  be  good  stock,  well  cured,  and  of  a  generally 
attractive  appearance.    It  must  be  comparatively  white  and  shall 


BY-PRODUCTS  369 

be  quite  free  from  undesirable  portions,  but  stock  having  a  small 
percentage  of  such  defects  is  usually  put  in  this  grade. 

Extra  Fancy.  As  the  name  implies,  this  is  a  Fancy  grade  that 
is  exceptionally  fine.  It  must  possess  in  a  marked  degree  all  the 
qualities  mentioned  in  describing  that  grade.  At  least  85  per  cent 
of  the  slices  should  be  rings. 

The  side  of  the  box  intended  for  the  face  is  packed  first,  as 
in  the  case  of  fresh  fruit  in  boxes  or  barrels.  The  first  step, 
therefore,  is  to  face  the  top.  The  facers  are  slices  which  are 
perfect  rings.  These  are  usually  selected  from  a  quantity  of 
fruit  which  contains  a  relatively  large  proportion  of  them  ;  they 
are  then  placed  on  thin  boards,  the  measure  of  which  is  slightly  less 
than  that  of  the  inside  of  the  top,  overlapping  one  another  in  length- 
wise rows.  The  facers  are  put  in  place  by  inserting  the  board  on 
which  they  are  arranged  into  the  box,  which  is  first  lined  with  paraffin 
paper,  and  then  with  a  dexterous  movement  of  the  hand  flipping 
the  layer  of  rings  against  the  inner  face  or  the  bottom,  which  is 
to  become  the  top  of  the  box. 

A  press  is  generally  used  in  filling  the  boxes.  Three  men 
compose  a  packing  gang  for  each  press  :  one  to  fill  the  boxes  and 
weigh  the  fruit ;  one  to  operate  the  press  ;  and  the  third  to  nail 
on  the  cover,  which  now  becomes  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

In  facing  whole  apples,  they  are  placed  on  their  side  in  rows 
lengthwise  of  the  bottom  (when  packed,  the  top)  of  the  box.  The 
boxes  are  then  filled  the  same  as  with  slices.  Quarters  are  handled 
in  the  same  way. 

Cartons  are  filled  by  hand,  the  work  usually  being  done  on  a 
table  of  convenient  height,  and  each  package  being  weighed  to 
insure  the  proper  content  of  fruit. 

The  sun-dried  fruit,  of  which  quite  large  quantities  are  handled 
by  some  dealers,  is  usually  packed  in  sugar  barrels.  This  is  largely 
exported.  The  waste  is  also  generally  put  into  barrels,  about  240 
or  250  pounds  net  being  required  for  a  barrel.  Chops  are  handled 
in  a  similar  manner. 

The  boxes  used  for  the  evaporated  fruit  are  as  follows  : 

For  American  trade  a  50-pound  wooden  box,  10]  x  1 1  x  22  in. 
inside,  and  a  25-pound  wooden  box,  9  xg  X  18  in.  inside;  for 
export    trade    a    5 5 -pound    wooden    box,    11   x  n|  x  22.1,    in., 


370  THE  APPLE 

marked  "25  kilos,"  and  1 -pound  paper  cartons,  2x5x7  in., 
marked  "  \  kilo." 

The  cannery.  A  modern  cannery  under  the  present  require- 
ments is  an  up-to-date  affair  —  no  longer  are  rough,  crude  sheds 
considered  fit  places  to  can  foodstuffs. 

The  requirements  of  a  cannery  are  somewhat  similar  to  those 
of  an  evaporator : 

1.  The  location  must  be  sanitary  and  away  from  objectionable 
manufacturing  processes,  such  as  soap  making  and  tanning. 

2.  The  water  supply  should  be  ample  and  pure,  free  from 
excessive  hardness  and  iron,  otherwise  the  finished  product  may 
be  damaged. 

3.  The  buildings  should  be  designed  to  give  the  greatest 
efficiency,  sanitation,  and  light.  By  efficiency  is  meant  sufficient 
space,  so  arranged  that  every  step  of  the  work  is  progress.  Sanita- 
tion means  good,  clean,  tight  floors,  good  sewage  facilities,  good 
ventilation,  and,  therefore,  cleanliness. 

4.  There  should  be  ample  machinery,  tables,  steam,  etc.,  so  that 
rapid,  economical,  efficient  work  can  be  accomplished. 

Canning.    The  steps   in   canning  apples  are  simple: 

1 .  The  fruit  should  be  of  such  varieties  as  cook  well,  —  slightly 
acid,  smooth,  and  sound,  — and  should  be  delivered  in  first-class 
condition  fresh  from  the  orchard  and  in  a  manner  to  prevent 
injury. 

2.  The  fruit  should  be  graded  or  sorted  for  quality.  This  may 
be  done  best  by  a  few  well-trained  helpers. 

3.  The  fruit  is  picked  up  and  cut  into  pieces  of  the  proper  size, 
if  so  desired  ;  this  may  be  done  by  hand  or  by  machinery.  The  last 
work  is  that  of  coring  the  apple.  Where  machinery  is  used  for 
peeling  and  coring,  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  the  fruit  gone 
over  last  by  the  hand  help  to  detect  pieces  of  skin  left  near  the 
calyx  or  stem,  or  bits  of  core. 

4.  The  cans  that  are  to  be  used  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
by  washing.    Machinery  washing  does  this  work  very  effectively. 

5.  The  cans  are  now  filled  either  by  hand  or  by  machinery.  If 
by  hand,  the  contents  should  be  weighed  rather  than  measured, 
so  that  the  finished  product  will  be  uniform  ;  if  by  machinery,  care 
should  be  taken  to  deliver  the  apples  with  the  least  possible  amount 


BY-PRODUCTS  371 

of  crushing  or  injury.  The  fruit  should  be  placed  in  cans  at  once 
or  it  will  discolor.  The  amount  of  material  used  for  each  can 
should  be  all  that  can  be  put  into  it  in  first-class  condition,  with 
hot  water  added  immediately  to  make  the  can  full. 

6.  Sealing  cans,  such  as  open  tops,  by  a  special  machine  called 
a  double  seamer  is  practical  in  some  canneries.  The  lid  is  pressed 
into  place,  and  steel  rollers  crimp  it  on  without  acid  or  solder.  This 
is  all  done  at  the  rate  of  30  cans  a  minute,  or  1800  per  hour. 
Cans  with  soldered  tops  are  sealed  by  automatic  machinery,  85  a 
minute  and  5000  an  hour.  Such  machinery  will  wipe  the  top  of 
the  can,  place  the  cap  on,  apply  the  acid,  solder  and  close  the 
vent,  all  in  one  series  of  operation  and  without  the  hand  touching 
any  part  of  the  can. 

7.  To  test  for  leaks  the  cans  are  submerged  in  a  bath  of 
boiling  water.  A  scries  of  air  bubbles  issuing  from  the  can  indi- 
cates a  defect. 

8.  Apples  are  processed  about  eight  minutes  at  212  degrees  F. 
for  No.  3  cans  and  about  ten  minutes  for  No.  10  cans.  This 
processing  consists  of  placing  the  cans  in  a  vat  or  retort,  sometimes 
submerging  in  boiling  water,  and  then  turning  on  steam  for  the 
required  time. 

9.  After  processing  with  water  the  cans  should  be  cooled 
quickly.  Unless  this  is  done  the  processing  may  continue  too  long 
and  overcook  the  contents. 

10.  The  cans  are  stored  away  and  later  labeled,  boxed,  and 
shipped  wherever  required. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

COOPERATION 

During  the  last  few  years  much  consideration  has  been  given 
to  the  subject  of  cooperation.  Producers  are  urged  to  cooperate, 
middlemen  are  forming  organizations,  and  consumers  have  the 
"  get  together  "  spirit.    There  are  many  reasons  for  this  tendency. 

The  producer  receives  only  about  a  third  of  every  dollar  the 
consumer  spends  for  food  materials. 

The  consumer  is  constantly  paying  more  for  foodstuffs,  but  the 
farmer  does  not  receive  correspondingly  higher  prices. 

The  farmer  pays  from  8  to  12  per  cent  on  borrowed  money, 
while  organized  industries  pay  only  from  4  to  6  per  cent.  Organ- 
ization will  materially  increase  the  purchasing  power  of  each  dollar. 

Apples  are  grown  by  the  orchardist,  but  it  is  the  middleman, 
not  the  grower,  who  sets  the  price  on  the  apples.  This  is  as  absurd 
as  it  would  be  for  a  middleman  to  set  the  price  on  the  product 
of  an  organized  industry  like  the  Standard  Oil  Company  or  the 
United  States  Steel  Company. 

The  unorganized  consumer  is  generally  the  one  who  pays  the 
bills  for  the  high  cost  of  living. 

There  are  many  other  reasons  being  brought  forward  in  the 
attempt  to  make  producers,  consumers,  and  others  cooperate. 
The  old  saying  "  In  union  there  is  strength  "  is  still  true. 

How  to  cooperate.  All  apple-growers  in  a  certain  section  should 
come  together  at  a  definite  time  and  place  and  proceed  to  form 
a  local  organization.  It  is  necessary  to  have  some  form  of  consti- 
tution and  by-laws,  and  to  elect  officers,  such  as  president,  secre- 
tary, treasurer,  and  if  a  buying  or  selling  organization,  an  agent 
or  manager  and  a  board  of  directors.  An  organization  should  be 
incorporated  as  soon  as  practicable  after  its  formation. 

The  wording  of  the  constitution  and  by-laws  should  be  short, 
concise,  and  clear.     The  officers  should  be  the  broadest-minded, 


COOPERATION  373 

most  progressive  members  of  the  community.  The  manager 
should  be  the  best  man  obtainable,  regardless  of  the  expense  up 
to  the  limit  of  the  association.  An  inefficient,  poorly  paid  manager 
will  do  more  harm  and  cost  more  in  the  end  than  a  good  man  well 
paid  and  satisfied.  The  manager  should  have  a  broad  view  of  the 
apple  markets  of  the  world  and  should  be  businesslike,  keen,  alert, 
forceful,  and  resourceful. 

Relation  of  members  to  cooperation.  The  members  should  stand 
back  of  their  officers,  and  particularly  their  manager,  to  the  last 
man.  This  is  very  important  if  success  is  to  be  obtained.  Each 
member  should  attend  meetings  and  feel  that  the  time  to  speak 
out  is  at  the  meetings  and  not  afterwards. 

Advertising.  It  is  highly  important  that  as  soon  as  possible 
after  organizing,  a  plan  of  systematic  advertising  be  inaugurated. 
It  is  less  expensive  and  more  effective  to  advertise  one  unit,  such 
as  an  organization,  than  to  advertise  a  dozen  or  more  individuals 
in  a  locality.  The  fruit  has  definite  brand  marks,  probably  not 
more  than  two  or  three  for  apples,  although  there  may  be  several 
varieties  for  each  brand.  By  advertising  a  particular  brand,  it  soon 
becomes  fixed  on  the  market,  and  if  the  apples  are  of  high  grade, 
both  dealers  and  consumers  look  for  this  particular  brand  when 
buying.  This  habit  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  case  of  various 
breakfast  foods  and  other  well-advertised  products.  The  con- 
sumers are  educated  by  systematic  advertising  to  demand  the  par- 
ticular brand.  Apples  may  be  as  successfully  brought  before  the 
public  if  organized,  systematic  advertising,  backed  up  by  quality, 
is  undertaken. 

Growers'  and  shippers'  organizations.  Organized  primarily  to 
obtain  high  prices  in  sales  and  low  prices  in  purchases,  the 
growers'  and  shippers'  organizations  formed  in  many  places  are 
working  satisfactorily. 

Spraying  materials,  such  as  copper  sulphate,  lime,  sulphur,  Paris 
green,  arsenate  of  lead,  and  Black  Leaf  40,  all  may  be  obtained  at 
a  lower  price  if  the  individuals  of  a  community  lump  their  orders 
in  a  local  organization.  A  large  order  always  demands  a  lower 
price,  and  the  freight  charges  per  hundredweight  are  less  on  a 
car  lot  than  on  individual  orders.  Spraying  rigs,  hose,  baskets, 
boxes,  barrels,  ladders,  labels,  house  foodstuffs,  feed  for  stock,  and 


374  THE  APPLE 

many  other  supplies  may  be  more  advantageously  purchased  by 
the  organization  than  by  individuals. 

In  a  like  manner,  if  the  organization  has  the  selling  of  all  the 
fruit  of  the  community,  with  its  necessary  uniform  grading,  pack- 
ing, labeling,  etc.,  it  is.  able  to  distribute  its  produce  more  widely 
and  more  advantageously.  If  buyers  come  into  a  locality  where 
there  is  a  growers'  and  shippers'  organization,  it  is  possible  for 
this  organization  to  dictate  the  price  which  must  be  paid  for  the 
fruit.    This  is  as  it  should  be. 

A  good  example  of  cooperative  organization  is  found  in  the 
California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange,  which  practically  controls 
the  orange  and  lemon  prices  of  its  members'  product.  The  Long 
Island  Potato  Exchange  and  the  Long  Island  Cauliflower  Exchange 
control  to  a  marked  degree  the  outgoing  crops  and  the  price  re- 
ceived. The  new  organization  known  as  the  North  Pacific  Fruit 
Distributors  is  destined  to  be  a  potent  factor  in  developing,  man- 
aging, grading,  packing,  and  selling  the  products  of  the  great 
Northwest  in  the  United  States. 

The  success  which  the  new  central  distributing  body  has  met 
in  arranging  to  deal  with  the  storage  question  serves  to  illustrate 
the  kind  of  encouragement  and  cooperation  which  the  growers 
are  receiving  from  the  community  at  large.  Very  soon  after  the 
central  body  was  organized,  the  trustees  received  offers  of  capital 
sufficient  to  construct  all  storage  warehouses  necessary  to  the  effi- 
cient handling  of  the  fruit  crop  of  the  Northwest.  Steps  toward 
popularizing  the  fruits  grown  in  the  Northwest  for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  consumption  are  strongly  urged  by  the  growers,  who 
are  ready  to  set  aside  a  fund  for  this  purpose. 

It  is  assured  that  selling  agencies  will  be  established  or  agents 
designated  (probably  the  latter)  in  all  the  distributing  centers  in 
this  country  and  abroad.  It  is  felt  that  in  handling  fruit  in  large 
quantities  through  this  kind  of  selling  and  distributing  organiza- 
tion, the  overhead  charges  will  be  greatly  reduced  and  both  the 
producer  and  the  consumer  will  be  benefited. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
COSTS,  YIELDS,  AND  PROFITS 

The  cost  of  an  acre  of  apple  trees.  Just  what  does  it  cost  to 
grow  an  acre  of  apple  trees  to  the  age  of  twelve  years?  Estimates 
by  practical  growers  vary  from  $75.00  to  $150.00  or  more  each 
year,  or  from  $1000.00  to  $1550.00  for  twelve  years.  It  depends 
on  many  factors,  such  as  the  size  of  the  orchard  in  which  the  acre 


Per  Cent 
35 

25 
20 
15 
10 

Alex.     M.B.   2<)..z.  Fall  Pip.  Gruv.    old.      N.  S.     P.  S.    T.  K.    Bald.     R.I.     Fam.  Russet    Spitz.  Ben  D. 

Fig.  162.    Prices  of  apples  on  the  New  York  market 

Based  on  figures  obtained  by  H.  B.  Knapp  of  Cornell  University 

Key  to  varieties:   left  to   right,  Alexander,   Maiden    Blush,  Twenty   Ounce,   Fall    Pippin, 

Gravenstein,  <  Hdenburg,   Northern  Spy,  Pound  Sweet,  Tompkins  County  King,  Baldwin, 

Rhode  Island  Greening,  Fameuse,  Russet,  Spitzenburg,  Ben  Davis 


is  contained,  the  cover  crops,  the  number  of  sprayings,  the  kinds 
and  cost  of  spraying  rigs  and  materials,  the  amount,  kind,  and 
costs  of  the  different  fertilizer  ingredients,  the  interest  on  the  land, 
the  necessary  equipment,  —  such  as  horse,  plows,  harrows,  pruning 
tools,  ladder,  and  the  like,  —  the  efficiency  and  availability  of  the 
labor,  and  miscellaneous  charges. 

375 


376  THE  APPLE 

Average  figures  as  to  the  cost  to  grow  an  orchard  to  twelve 
years  of  age,  taken  from  yearly  records  of  orchard  management, 
are  as  follows  : 

Cost  per  Acre 

Starting  the  orchard #19.92  to       #40.00 

5  per  cent  interest  on   land  valued  at 

550  to  $100  an  acre 30.00  to         60.00 

Necessary  equipment 58.80  to         75.00 

Fertilizer 1 20.00  to       240.00 

Spray  material 31.20  to         42.00 

Cover  crops 36.00  to         60.00 

Barrels 282.00  to       420.00 

Labor 420.00  to       600.00 

Overhead  charges 9.60  to          15.00 

Total #1007.52  to  #1552.00 

Cost  of  producing  a  barrel  of  apples.  Mr.  Roy  D.  Anthony 
of  the  Geneva  Experiment  Station  has  lately  compiled  some  very 
interesting  figures  on  the  cost  of  growing  a  barrel  of  apples.  These 
figures  have  been  culled  from  the  records  of  orchards  which  have 
been  under  the  direction  of  the  Geneva  Experiment  Station  for 
from  two  to  fourteen  years.    The  results  are  as  follows  : 

Fixed  charges : 

Interest $0,227 

Taxes .02 

Machinery 075 

Buildings .03 

Management .075 

Materiah  : 

Fertilizer .06 

Spraying  twice .05 

Barrels        .35 

Cover-crop  seed .03 

Labor  cost : 

Pruning 045 

Spraying  twice .056 

Applying  fertilizer .015 

Cultivation  (plowing,  hoeing,  and  the  like) 094 

Harvesting  (including  picking,  grading,  and  packing)  .  .025 

Marketing  (delivering  at  shipping  point) .10 


COSTS,  YIELDS,  AND   PROFITS  377 

Summary : 

Labor $0.56 

Cost  of  materials .49 

Fixed  charges 428 

Total  cost #[.474 

The  labor  per  acre  is  made  up  in  the  average  orchard  of  145  hours  man's 
work  and  55  hours  horse  work;  in  the  better-managed  orchard,  of  195  hours 
man's  work  and  75  hours  horse  work. 

It  has  been  found  that  where  better  management  is  used,  and  where  the 
total  yield  of  apples  per  acre  is  above  the  average  of  sixty-six  barrels,  the  total 
cost  of  producing  is  reduced  from  #1.47!  to  as  low  as  #1.21  per  barrel. 

Cost  of  producing  a  bushel  of  apples.  Taking  into  account  the 
items  necessary  to  the  proper  management,  it  is  found  that  a  bushel 
of  apples  on  average  trees  can  be  produced  for  about  36  cents.  The 
age  and  size  of  the  tree  will  have  much  to  do  with  this  cost.  This 
estimate  is  obtained  from  figures  given  above  on  the  basis  of  a  yield 
of  about  seventy  or  seventy-five  barrels  per  acre.    To  summarize  : 

Interest #0.022 

Necessary  equipment 025 

Spray  material 013 

Cover  crops 005 

Barrels 1  10 

Labor 1S0 

Overhead  charges 005 

Total $0,360  per  bushel 

Cost  of  selling  a  bushel  of  apples.  In  New  York  the  charges 
for  selling  a  bushel  of  apples  are  as  follows  : 

Railroad,  from  grower  to  New  York  City  .     .     .     .  $0.10 

Cartage,  commission  (10  per  cent) 12 

Retailer 50 

Total #0.72 

Thus  the  grower  receives  from  15  to  50  cents  per  bushel. 
In  shipping  from  the  West  the  following  charges  are  made  : 

Association  or  agent $0.10 

Railroad .50 

Commission  man .25 

Retailer $1.00  to     1.35 

$1.85  to  $2.20 

In  this  case  the  grower  obtains  from  $1.15  to  80  cents  per  box. 


378 


THE  APPLE 


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7 

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8    *    8- 


3    - 


9    ■* 


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co    co     co 


8    8   S    ?    S 

CO       CJ      <N       <N       (N 


Yields  of  apples. 
Some  instances  of 
from  i  o  to  15 
barrels  of  apples 
per  tree  have  been 
reported  by  dif- 
ferent orchardists. 
In  such  cases  the 
trees  are  generally 
very  large,  and  the 
crop  may  have 
been  preceded  by 
several  years  of 
short  bearing.  Few 
if  any  orchards  are 
able  under  present 
systems  of  manage- 
ment to  average 
such   high   yields. 

In  some  years 
there  is  scarcely 
any  apple  crop, 
and  the  few  apples 
that  are  produced 
are  often  not  worth 
the  cost  of  pick- 
ing. However,  the 
year  preceding  or 
following  a  poor 
year  generally  pro- 
duces an  abundant 
yield,  although  in- 
terference of  frosts 
may  modify  this 
somewhat.  Low 
yields  are  common 
with  poor  systems 
of  management. 


Price 
§4.00 
3.S0 
3.G0 
3.40 
3.20 
3.00 
2.S0 
2.G0 
2.40 
2.20 
2.00 
1.80 


Month. Aug.      Sept.       Oct.       Nov.      Dec.       Jan.       Feb.       Mar.       Apr.       May 
Fig.  164.    Barrel  prices  by  months  for  twenty  years 
Based  on  figures  obtained  by  H.  B.  Knapp 


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A  fine  country  road 


Good  roads  through  the  fruit  section  are  essential  in  order  to  reduce  the  cost  of 

marketing.    A  fine  road  at   Hilton,  New  York,  in  the  midst  of  the  apple  country. 

(Photograph  by  M.  C.  Burrett) 


379 


Price 
84.00 


1 — /- 

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/  / 

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/  / 

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1890  J%' 

■ —  T  €^ 

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Deo.  Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr. 

Fig.  i  66.    Ben  Davis 
Based  on  figures  obtained  by  II.  B.  Knapp 


May 


Price 

S4.20 


3.00 

2.  SO 


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f 

1893,-- 

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r 

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Month  Sept.       Oct.         Nov.        Dec.         Jan.         Feb.        Mar.        Apr.        May       June 

Fi<;.  167.    Baldwin 

Based  on  figures  obtained  by  H.  B.  Knapp 

3^0 


COSTS,  YIELDS,  AND  PROFITS 


38i 


AVERAGE   YIELDS 

For  United  States  less  than  1  bushel  per  tree. 

For  Missouri  less  than  .7  bushel  per  tree. 

For  New  York  less  than  2.2  bushels  per  tree. 

For  Illinois  less  than  .3  bushel  per  tree. 

For  Pennsylvania  less  than  i  .38  bushels  per  tree. 

For  Michigan  less  than  1.63  bushels  per  tree. 

From  2  to  5  bushels  per  tree  is  a  good  average  yield,  and  from 
70  to  75  barrels  per  acre  would  be  considered  good. 


Price 
$4.00 

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/  / 

\ 

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\ 

<^S 

/ 

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4/ 

r 

J/ 

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Month  Sept. 


Nov.  Dec.  Jan.  Feb. 

Fie.  168.    Rhode  Island  Greening 
Based  on  figures  obtained  by  II.  B.  Knapp 


May 


Retail  prices.  The  retail  price  of  apples  ranges  from  5  cents  each 
to  5  cents  a  quart.  At  5  cents  each,  with  96  apples  in  a  box,  the 
price  is  $4.80,  about  $2.50  above  the  wholesale  price  of  the  box. 
At  5  cents  a  quart,  with  88  quarts  in  a  barrel,  the  price  is  $4.40, 
which  is  about  $1.90  above  the  wholesale  price  of  the  barrel. 


382 


THE  APPLE 


Wholesale  prices.  From  $1.25  to  $4.50  per  barrel  is  paid  for 
apples,  according  to  the  variety  and  to  the  quality,  size,  color,  and 
other  considerations.  The  time  of  purchase,  whether  early  in  the 
fall  or  late  in  the  winter,  and  the  conditions  of  purchase,  whether 
in  the  orchard  or  delivered,  also  affect  the  price. 


^> 

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V 

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/ 

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r 

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tf 

J&V^ 

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s 

f 

<0&^ 

Y 

/      t 

*-' 

t        y 

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f 

2.40 

2.20 


Month  Oct.  Nov.  Dec.  Jan-  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May         June 

Fig.  169.    Northern  Spy 

Based  on  figures  obtained  by  II.  B.  Knapp 


The  price  in  boxes  also  varies  in  much  the  same  way  that  the 
barrel  stock  does,  although  the  variety  and  pack  make  the  greatest 
difference.  From  $1.00  to  $3.50  per  box  is  received,  sometimes 
more. 

Profits.  If  a  grower  receives  an  average  price  of  $2.00  for  ten 
years  on  his  barrel  crop  and  $1.50  from  his  boxed  fruit,  he  is 
getting  fair  returns. 


COSTS,  YIELDS,  AND  PROFITS  383 

Such  high  prices  as  from  $10.00  to  $12.00  for  barrel  stock  and 
from  $5.00  to  S7.50  for  box  apples  have  at  times  been  obtained, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  such  low  prices  as  from  75  cents  and  $1.00 
down  for  barrels  and  from  50  cents  to  $1.00  or  less  for  boxes, 
have  prevailed. 

From  $75.00  to  $100  per  acre  is  a  good  profit  to  receive  from 
an  apple  orchard.  Some  orchardists  receive  more,  but  the  average 
return  in  the  United  States  for  fruit  farms  with  trees  of  bearing 
age  is  $27.93,  or  about  55  cents  per  tree,  and  this  is  gross,  not 
net  profit.  The  average  return  per  fruit  farm  having  trees  of 
bearing  age  in  New  York  State  is  $49.11. 

From  $250  to  $300  per  acre  is  a  very  high  profit  to  receive  from 
an  apple  orchard.  Few  growers  are  able  to  reach  this  high  figure. 
Still,  it  should  be  the  goal  of  all  commercial  orchardists. 

Take  the  yield  (good)  at  70  barrels  per  acre 

Average  price  at  $2.50  per  barrel         "1  *i  7c  00 

Cost  of  production  at  36^  per  bushel    J 
Cost  of  selling  wholesale  at  22^  per  bushel   .      1  1 1.65 
Net  returns #°3-35 


CHAPTER   XXX 
GROWING  APPLES  FOR  THE  HOME 

Many  individuals  have  only  enough  land  for  a  small  garden  or 
orchard.  It  is  highly  important  that  owners  of  small  plots  of  less 
than  an  acre  be  encouraged  to  utilize  these  by  planting  fruit  trees, 
especially  the  apple. 

General  advice.  As  a  rule,  in  such  cases  there  cannot  be  much 
of  a  choice  of  site  for  each  apple  tree.  However,  the  planting  be- 
ing so  small,  the  home  grower  can  improve  a  poor  site  by  drainage 
or  irrigation,  or  some  other  means. 

Trees  should  be  purchased  from  reliable  nurserymen  or  through 
reliable  seed  houses,  and  should  measure  up  to  the  standards  of 
first-class  trees  given  in  Chapter  IV.  Before  planting,  see  that  the 
roots  are  clean  and  the  ends  cut  smoothly.  Dig  a  hole  large  enough 
for  the  roots  to  lie  in  their  natural  position.  It  is  generally  best  to 
have  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  slightly  loose  for  an  inch  or 
two.  Place  the  tree  in  the  hole,  having  it  stand  perhaps  slightly 
deeper  than  it  stood  in  the  nursery.  This  depth  may  be  easily  as- 
certained by  inspection  of  the  trunk  just  above  the  roots,  where  a 
slight  ring  of  dirt  or  discolored  matter  will  be  seen. 

The  soil  should  be  firmed  about  the  roots  ;  first,  the  fine  topsoil 
should  be  thoroughly  worked  in  among  the  roots  by  the  use  of  the 
hand  and  fingers,  then  the  remainder  of  the  topsoil  should  be 
trodden  down  by  foot  pressure  after  each  two  or  three  shovelfuls. 
Finally,  the  subsoil  should  be  thrown  in  and  trodden  clown  until 
the  hole  is  filled.  The  last  two  or  three  shovelfuls  may  be  spread 
loosely  over  the  soil  near  the  tree  and  left  in  this  condition  to  serve 
as  a  mulch  to  help  conserve  the  moisture  that  is  in  the  soil.  Some- 
times on  sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  especially  if  it  is  comparatively  dry, 
several  buckets  of  water  may  be  used  to  advantage. 

The  top  of  the  tree  should  be  cut  back  in  order  to  give  the  tree 
balance.    Leave  three  limbs  with  three  buds  on  each,  the  topmost 

384 


GROWING  APPLES  FOR  THE  HOME 


385 


or  highest  bud  being  on  the  underside  of  the  limb.  Sometimes 
five  short  stubs  are  left,  and  some  men  prefer  to  cut  the  whole  top 
off,  leaving  nothing  but  a  whip.  However,  for  the  inexperienced 
person  three  is  quite  safe  and  satisfactory. 

When  it  comes  to  pruning,  do  not  lose  heart  because  it  is  neces- 
sary to  remove  so  much  of  the  tree.  Remember  that  you  must 
be  fair  to  both  parts  of  the  tree,  so  cut  back  the  head. 


Fig.  170.    The  home  road 

Utilization  of  space  at  the  sides  of  roads  by  planting  apple  trees  is  both  remunerative 
and  beautifying 

Spring  planting  is  generally  preferred  by  the  home  gardener. 
It  is  the  season  of  the  year  when  almost  everyone  turns  to  nature 
and  attempts  the  raising  of  some  form  of  plant  or  animal  life. 

It  is  generally  difficult  to  cultivate  much  in  the  home  orchard 
because  many  times  the  location  or  soil  condition  is  poor.  How- 
ever, when  possible  it  should  be  done.  Perhaps  where  the  orchard 
cannot  be  cultivated,  a  mulch  of  weeds,  leaves,  straw,  or  other 
material  may  be  used.  If  the  tree  is  planted  in  the  lawn,  then  no 
cultivation  or  mulch  can  be  given.  In  the  latter  case,  some  attention 
to  watering  during  the  dry  period  should  be  given,  remembering 
that  a  large  amount  of  water  at  long  intervals  is  better  than  a  small 
amount  more  often. 


386 


THE  APPLE 


Insects  and  diseases.  The  trees  should  be  watched  for  insects 
and  diseases,  and  if  any  are  discovered,  some  treatment  should  be 
given.  If  the  insect  is  seen  eating  the  leaves,  destroy  the  pest  by 
putting  poison  on  the  leaves.  If  the  leaves  or  other  parts  of  the 
tree  show  any  of  the  changes  mentioned  in  Chapter  XIX,  apply 
the  remedy  prescribed  for  that  particular  disease.    If  other  troubles 

develop  and  it  is  impos- 
sible to  diagnose  them, 
write  a  full  description  and 
send  a  sample  of  the  pest 
to  your  state  experiment 
station  or  to  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture at  Washington. 

Pruning.  Trees  should 
be  properly  pruned.  It  is 
possible,  if  pruning  begins 
when  the  tree  is  young, 
never  to  remove  any  wood 
larger  than  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  However,  most 
men,  even  experienced  or- 
chardists,  cannot  always 
foretell  the  growth  and 
other  changes  that  passing 
wars  will  make,  and  it  is 
sometimes  necessary  to 
remove   larger   limbs. 

In  pruning  keep  the 
tree  low  with  a  moderately 
rounded  top,  thus  making  the  breadth  of  the  top  (where  the  limbs 
and  twigs  are)  greater  than  the  height  of  the  tree.  Do  not  allow 
the  limbs  to  cross  each  other  and  rub,  or  to  grow  back  into  the 
tree,  or  to  become  too  numerous.  Keep  the  head  of  the  tree  some- 
what open  to  admit  sunlight.  Sometimes  one  side  of  the  tree  grows 
faster  than  the  other.  Try  to  encourage  the  weaker  side  by  pruning 
back  the  stronger.  In  other  words,  keep  the  tree  symmetrical,  well 
balanced,  low,  and  open,  and  encourage  correct  growth. 


Fig.  17 i.    Good  products  of  the  home 

Young  apple  tree  headed  low,  growing  on  the  sands 
of  central  Long  Island.  (Courtesy  of  H.  B.  Fullerton) 


GROWING  APPLES   FOR  THE  HOME  387 

Fertilizers.  Fertilizers  may  be  applied  to  the  soil  around  the 
tree,  eare  being  taken  to  apply  the  material  out  under  the  spread 
of  the  branches  (or  even  further),  where  the  young  feeding  roots 
are,  and  not  close  to  the  trunk.  Use  small  amounts  at  first,  then 
larger  quantities  to  correspond  with  the  increase  in  size  of  the  tree, 
following  the  suggestions  on  fertilization  in  Chapter  XII. 

Picking  the  fruit.  Harvesting  the  fruit  may  be  extended  over 
quite  a  long  period,  especially  if  the  apples  are  picked  for  immedi- 
ate consumption.  A  pole-basket  picker  may  be  used  to  advantage  on 
the  old  high-headed  trees,  while  on  the  lower-headed  trees,  picking 
may  be  done  by  hand.  To  get  within  reach  of  the  fruit  one  may 
use  chairs,  tables,  stepladders,  or  regular  ladders  — anything  that  will 
bridge  the  space. 

In  picking  or  handling  it  is  important  to  remember  that  apples 
are  tender  and  will  not  stand  rough  treatment,  such  as  pouring 
them  out  of  a  basket  into  a  barrel  and  allowing  them  to  drop 
several  feet.  Treat  them  sensibly  and  they  will  keep  longer,  look 
better,  and  be  more  satisfactory  in  every  way. 

Miscellaneous  advice.  Where  the  purchaser  or  owner  of  a 
small  lot  has  one  or  two  trees  that  have  been  neglected,  he  may 
renovate  and  make  them  profitable  if  he  will  give  the  necessary 
time  and  attention  to  them.  Detailed  information  for  renovating 
old  trees  or  neglected  orchards  will  be  found  in  the  next  chapter. 
Special  varieties  for  the  home  will  also  be  treated  in  a  later  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS 

In  all  the  older  apple-growing  regions  vast  numbers  of  trees 
both  old  and  young  have  fallen  into  neglect  for  various  causes,  such 
as  lack  of  proper  management,  lack  of  interest,  carelessness,  dis- 
eases, and  insect  pests.  Many  such  trees  can  be  brought  back  to 
a  yielding  basis  if  intelligence  is  applied  to  the  problem. 

Many  of  the  older  trees  are  very  tall  (often  35  feet  or  more),  which 
is  probably  due  somewhat  to  the  high-headed  nursery  stock  com- 
monly used  in  earlier  plantings  and  also  to  the  close  planting 
practiced  years  ago.  In  some  cases  the  trees  are  covered  with  moss, 
lichens,  and  old  dead  bark,  probably  harboring  countless  insects 
and  persistent  diseases.  Frequently  there  is  an  overabundance  of 
woody  growth  on  the  tree,  and  often  shrubs,  small  trees,  weeds, 
etc.  surround  the  trees.  In  fact,  conditions  for  fruit  production 
are  at  their  worst. 

Is  renovation  practicable?  Many  factors  must  be  considered 
before  this  question  can  be  answered  satisfactorily. 

1.  Varieties.  If  the  orchard  is  largely  made  up  of  undesirable 
varieties,  it  may  be  best  to  leave  it  entirely  alone,  especially  if  the 
trees  are  old,  high-headed,  long-armed  specimens.  To  graft  over 
such  trees  would  be  a  long,  tedious,  expensive  job.  In  younger 
orchards  it  might  be  better  to  correct  the  variety  by  top-grafting. 
Where  the  larger  part  of  the  orchard  is  made  up  of  a  desirable 
variety  such  as  the  Baldwin,  it  may  be  advantageous  to  mix  varieties 
somewhat  by  top-grafting,  in  order  to  insure  proper  pollination  and 
prevent  self-sterilization. 

2.  Location.  Where  the  location  or  exposure  of  the  orchard  is 
poor,  it  may  not  be  worth  while  to  bother  with  renovation.  Orchards 
on  low  lands,  where  they  are  likely  to  be  injured  by  late  spring 
frosts,  may  not  be  worth  attention,  and  southern  exposures,  where 
sunscald  and  other  troubles  abound,  may  not  be  favorable.    Cold, 

38S 


RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS 


389 


springy  hillsides  which  warm  up  in  the  late  spring  are  not  very- 
desirable,  but  may  be  improved  by  proper  drainage,  whether  of  the 
tile,  open-ditch,  or  other  form  of  construction. 

Orchards  located  on  high  ground,  which  are  well  protected  from 
prevailing  winds  and  do  not  show  such  disadvantages  as  frost 
pockets  and  poor  drainage,  are  more  satisfactory  to  renovate. 

3.  Soil.  Where  the  character  of  the  soil  is  a  sandy  or  gravelly 
loam,  the  chances  for  success  are  much  better  than  where  the  orchard 
is  located  on  either  a 
heavy  clay  or  a  light  sand 
soil.  A  good  clay  loam 
is  not  very  objectionable. 
The  test  is  the  thrift  of 
the  tree.  Apple  trees  are 
known  to  thrive  on  a  great 
diversity  of  soils  if  they 
are  well  drained  and  well 
managed ;  therefore,  if 
the  trees  show  signs  of 
thriftiness,  it  will  usually 
be  worth  while  to  renovate 
if  other  conditions  are 
favorable. 

4.  Age  ami  vigor  of 
the  trees.  Apple  trees  ex- 
ceeding thirty  or  forty 
years  of  age  usually  lack 
vigor  and  are  seldom  worth 

renovating.  Trees  that  have  been  robbed  of  their  vigor  by  such 
enemies  as  the  San  Jose  scale,  that  have  been  repeatedly  de- 
foliated by  leaf-eating  insects,  or  that  have  many  decayed  spots  or 
dead  limbs  caused  by  a  fungus,  would  probably  not  pay  for  the 
expense  of  renovation. 

5.  Vacancies  in  orchard.  Where  there  are  many  vacancies  in 
an  orchard,  that  is,  in  orchards  where  less  than  60  per  cent  of 
the  trees  remain,  it  will  not  pay  to  renovate.  However,  in  some 
orchards  the  trees  are  so  closely  planted  that  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  remove  a  number  of  them.    Under  such  circumstances  a 


Fig.  172.    Typical  old  high-headed  New 

England  apple  trees 
These  trees  are  too  high  to  renovate  profitably 


390 


THE  APPLE 


vacant  space  here  and  there  might  prove  to  be  an  advantage.  It 
has  not  been  found  to  be  satisfactory  to  start  young  trees  in  an 
old  orchard,  nor  has  it  proved  profitable  to  grow  other  crops  in 
the  vacant  spaces.  Where  the  orchard  is  very  small  or  along  the 
roadside,  vacancies  may  be  rilled  or  ignored,  as  is  most  convenient. 


73.    Renovating  a  tree 


A  large  amount  of  useless  wood  has  been  cut  away  from  this  neglected  tree.  Still  more 
should  be  removed,  as  indicated  by  the  arc 

6.  Shape  and  position  of  head  of  tree.  Years  ago  high-headed 
nursery  stock  was  commonly  used,  and  the  close  planting  of  the 
trees  had  a  tendency  to  make  them  still  higher.  On  account  of 
the  difficulty  of  spraying  high-headed  trees  and  the  added  expense 
in  harvesting  the  fruit,  it  is  not  advisable  to  undertake  the  improve- 
ment of  an  orchard  composed  chiefly  of  such  trees.  Provided,  how- 
ever, the  trees  are  not  too  old,  good  results  may  be  expected  from 
the  renovation  of  moderately  high-headed  and  long-armed  trees  by 
severely  heading  in. 


RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS 


391 


7.  San  Jose  scale.  Where  the  San  Jose  scale  has  become  preva- 
lent, it  will  be  found  difficult  to  control,  especially  on  old  trees. 
Unless  the  grower  has  had  experience  in  fighting  the  scale  and  has 
unusual  perseverance  and  determination,  it  may  be  unwise  to  reno- 
vate a  scale-infested  orchard.  By  scraping  off  the  loose  bark,  de- 
horning or  severely  cutting  back  the  branches,  and  by  conscientious, 


I  his  is  especially 


if  the  variety  is  poor.    It  would  be  a  paying  proposition  to 
top-graft  such  trees 


thorough,  repeated  spraying,  success  can  be  attained.    The  work  is 
expensive,  discouraging,  and  dirty. 

8.  The  orchardist.  The  most  important  factor  of  all  is  the 
orchardist.  Is  he  determined,  conscientious,  thorough?  Will  he 
give  the  trees  the  best  treatment  through  a  series  of  years?  Does 
he  like  orchard  work  ?  Not  all  men  have  a  taste  for  fruit-growing. 
Not  all  men  are  successful  orchardists.  Has  he  the  earmarks  of 
a  true  orchardist  ?  Will  he  make  it  pay  ?  These  are  only  a  few  of 
the  questions  which  each  orchardist  should  ask  himself. 


392  THE  APPLE 

Method  of  procedure.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  hard-and-fast 
rules  to  be  followed  in  all  cases  of  orchard  renovation.  No  two 
orchards  are  just  alike,  therefore  each  may  require  special  treat- 
ment. The  best  results  will  come  from  giving  the  best  treatment 
in  every  respect.  It  would,  indeed,  be  a  very  short-sighted  policy 
to  allow  the  apples  to  be  disfigured  by  disease  or  consumed 
by  insects  after  going  to  the  expense  of  thoroughly  pruning, 
fertilizing,  and  cultivating. 

Orchard  renovation  is  necessarily  a  rejuvenating  process,  and  the 
treatment,  with  some  modifications,  is  the  same  as  that  required 
for  a  young  orchard.  The  trees,  after  being  stimulated  into  activity, 
are  maintained  in  a  healthy  condition  only  by  regular  methods  of 
tillage,  fertilizing,  pruning,  spraying,  and  the  like. 

Diagnosis.  The  first  step  is  to  look  the  orchard  over  thoroughly 
and  outline  on  paper  just  what  should  be  done  in  order  to  put 
it  into  proper  condition,  at  the  same  time  keeping  in  mind  the 
question,  Will  it  pay  ? 

If  it  is  decided  that  the  orchard  is  worth  renovating,  the  trees 
should  be  given  a  general  awakening  by  pruning  the  limbs,  by 
the  addition  of  plant  food,  by  breaking  up  and  tilling  the  soil,  by 
spraying,  and  by  other  means.  The  severity  of  treatment  will  de- 
pend largely  on  the  condition  of  the  trees.  The  index  to  the  health 
of  a  tree  is  the  amount  of  annual  growth,  which  is  from  6  to  18 
inches  with  a  normal  tree.  The  spurlike  growth  usually  observed 
on  neglected  trees  denotes  a  lack  of  vigor.  When  the  annual 
growth  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs  is  small,  or  not  more  than  2  inches, 
the  treatment  should  be  more  severe  in  every  way  than  when  the 
yearly  growth  exceeds  this  amount. 

Thinning  the  orchard.  In  many  orchards  or  even  among  the  few 
trees  near  a  farmhouse  the  trees  are  often  planted  too  closely.  In 
most  cases  they  have  begun  to  crowd  and  grow  upwards,  or  if  this 
is  not  the  case  they  lack  vigor.  If  these  trees  are  rejuvenated  they 
will  soon  require  more  room.  For  the  smaller-growing  varieties 
probably  from  25  to  30  feet  will  suffice,  but  the  larger-growing 
sorts,  such  as  the  Spy,  the  Baldwin,  the  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
and  the  like,  will  very  soon  require  at  least  40  feet  between  trees. 
If  the  spacing  is  found  to  be  insufficient,  some  of  the  trees  will 
have  to  be  removed.    It  is  best  to  follow  some  definite  or  regular 


RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS  393 

order  in  removing  these  trees,  so  as  to  retain  the  general  shape 
of  the  orchard. 

Where  trees  are  planted  in  squares,  as  is  commonly  the  case  in 
the  East,  every  alternate  tree  in  the  row  may  be  removed.  If  the 
first  tree  of  the  first  row  is  retained,  the  first  tree  of  the  second  row 
should  be  removed.  This  is  done  by  taking  out  every  second  row 
diagonally,  which  leaves  the  rows  cornerwise  of  the  orchard.  For 
instance,  if  the  squares  between  the  trees  were  originally  25  x  25 
ft.,  they  would  now  be  35.3  x  35.3  ft.;  if  originally  they  were 
30  x  30  ft.,  they  would  now  be  42.4  x  42.4  ft.  It  does  not 
follow,  therefore,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  that  by  removing  half 
the  trees  they  will  be  twice  as  far  apart  as  before. 

In  order  to  make  sure  that  the  diagonal  rows  removed  are  those 
containing  the  largest  possible  number  of  vacancies  and  inferior 
trees,  it  is  well  to  draw  a  diagram  of  the  orchard,  designating  all 
desirable  trees  by  a  certain  sign,  all  weak  trees  and  trees  of  unde- 
sirable varieties  by  another  sign,  and  all  vacancies  by  another. 
Whether  one  should  start  by  removing  the  first  diagonal  row  or 
the  second  may  readily  be  determined  by  referring  to  the  diagram. 

An  investigation  by  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  shows  that, 
within  certain  limits,  the  more  trees  per  acre  the  less  the  yield. 
The  figures  are  based  on  the  records  of  hundreds  of  orchards  and 
cover  a  period  of  four  years. 

Not  over  30  x  30  ft 1 86  bushels  per  acre 

31   x  31  to  35  x  35  ft 222  bushels  per  acre 

36  x  36  to  40  x  40  ft 229  bushels  per  acre 

Pruning.  The  next  operation  will  be  that  of  pruning,  provided 
the  trees  are  of  suitable  varieties  and  are  not  to  be  top-grafted. 

The  trees  that  are  very  tall  may  be  greatly  improved  by  cutting 
back  the  highest  branches.  A  tree  that  is  30  feet  or  over  in  height 
may  often  be  shortened  10  or  15  feet,  and  one  between  25  and 
30  feet  may  be  cut  back  to  about  15  or  20  feet.  The  horizontal 
branches,  as  well  as  the  upright  ones,  may  be  cut  back  to  advan- 
tage, especially  with  trees  seriously  lacking  in  vitality,  and  also 
those  infested  with  scale.  In  heading  back  the  upright  branches 
the  cut  is  usually  made  just  above  a  side  branch  that  points  out- 
ward.   This  tends  to  make  the  tree  more  spreading.    With  trees 


394 


THE  APPLE 


that  are  naturally  spreading  and  in  cases  where  a  more  upright 
growth  is  desired,  the  cutting  may  be  done  just  beyond  an  upright 
side  branch.  If  this  method  is  followed  with  all  horizontal  branches, 
a  much  stronger  structure  will  be  the  result. 

The  severity  of  heading  in  will  depend  largely  on  the  vigor  of 
the  tree.  Nothing  will  start  a  tree  into  renewed  growth  like  severe 
pruning  during  the  dormant  season.  The  cutting  back,  therefore, 
should  be  more  severe  with  weakened  trees.     With  moderately 


Fig.  175.    Expensive  renovation 

Trees  very  tall  and  therefore  expensive  to  renovate.    Often  the  purchaser  of  a  farm  practices 

renovating  the  old  trees  in  order  to  have  fruit  immediately,  at  the  same  time  planting  young 

trees  for  the  future 


vigorous  trees  there  is  danger  of  producing  a  rank  growth  in  the 
form  of  water  sprouts.  If  it  is  desirable  to  head  back  such  trees 
thoroughly,  it  is  better  to  do  it  gradually,  a  little  each  year,  and 
withhold  all  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  A  still  better  plan  is  to  remove 
about  half  of  the  required  amount  of  brush  during  the  winter  and 
the  remainder  during  the  growing  season.  Summer  pruning  pro- 
duces just  the  opposite  effect  of  winter  pruning  on  the  vigor  of 
the  tree,  and  will  counteract  the  stimulating  effect  of  the  latter. 
With  many  neglected  orchards,  however,  the  vitality  is  so  low  that 
most  of  the  pruning  may  be  done  without  fear  of  injury  during 
a  single  dormant  season. 


RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS  395 

The  severity  of  cutting  back  will  also  depend  upon  the  presence 
of  scale.  The  work  of  spraying  is  greatly  simplified,  and  the 
chances  for  success  in  controlling  the  scale  are  greatly  enhanced, 
by  extreme  methods  of  pruning. 

After  the  trees  have  been  sufficiently  headed  in,  all  dead  and  dis- 
eased branches  should  be  removed,  and  also  such  other  branches  as 
are  necessary  to  produce  a  condition  favorable  to  the  free  circulation 
of  air  and  the  admission  of  sunlight.  While  it  is  possible  (especially 
with  the  best  of  neglected  orchards)  to  overdo  the  pruning  process, 
the  average  man  is  more  likely  to  err  in  the  other  direction. 

What  to  do  with  wounds.  As  a  rule  all  the  cuts  made  by 
pruning  should  be  smooth  and  as  close  to  the  tree  as  practicable. 
The  small  wounds  heal  over  very  quickly  and  therefore  do  not 
need  any  attention.  Large  wounds  of  about  one  inch  or  more  in 
diameter  need  some  protective  substance  applied  to  them.  After  the 
larger  wounds  have  dried  it  is  a  good  practice  to  cover  them  with  a 
coat  of  paint  in  order  to  exclude  wood-decaying  fungi.  A  combina- 
tion of  white  lead  and  linseed  oil  is  a  good  one  for  this  purpose. 
If  the  white  is  objectionable,  lampblack  or  other  coloring  matter 
may  be  mixed  with  the  white  lead  and  oil  to  make  the  spots  less 
conspicuous.    On  very  large  cuts  annual  painting  may  be  necessary. 

Scraping.  Where  the  San  Jose  scale  is  common  or  where  the 
trees  are  barkbound,  scraping  is  to  be  recommended.  This  means 
removing  the  loose  bark  scales  from  the  tree  ;  it  does  not  mean 
skinning  the  tree.  An  old  hoe  or  a  three-cornered  scraper  may 
be  used.  A  rainy  or  moist  day  is  best  for  the  operation,  for  the 
loose  bark  is  then  removed  more  easily.  Begin  at  the  highest  point 
to  be  scraped  and  work  down.  Do  not  dig  in.  Collect  the  scrapings 
and  destroy  them,  as  they  may  contain  insects  or  diseases. 

Cavity  work.  Where  decayed  spots  are  found  in  the  tree  it 
may  be  best  to  dig  out  the  decayed  wood  with  a  chisel  or  gouge. 
The  live  wood  should  then  be  treated  with  a  weak,  copper-sulphate 
solution,  and  a  mixture  of  cement  and  sand  filled  into  the  hole. 
The  cement  mixture  may  be  retained  by  driving  nails  inside  the 
cavity,  or  by  using  wire  screening  or  pieces  of  steel  lathing  fastened 
inside  the  cavity.  The  surface  of  the  cement  mixture  should  be 
smooth  and  rounded,  being  lower  near  the  edges  to  permit  the 
bark  to  grow  over  it. 


396 


THE  APPLE 


In  some  cases  it  may  pay  to  fill  very  large  cavities,  but  not 
often.  The  cement  mixture  should  include  gravel  and  possibly 
large  stones  when  such  cavities  are  to  be  treated. 

Bracing.  Generally  a  tree  that  requires  bracing  is  of  little  value. 
However,  bracing  is  advisable  sometimes.  Where  there  is  an 
opposite  pull  between  two  branches  the  bracing  is  simple.  Two 
eyebolts  with  a  ring  through  the  eyes  will  do.  Bore  holes  through 
each  limb  in  the  same  plane.  Insert  the  ends  of  the  bolts  in  these 
holes  ;  place  washers  on  the  bolts,  and  screw  the  nuts  until  tight. 


Fig.  176.    Tree  surgery  and  tree  bracing 
A  practical  feature  where  trees  are  used  both  for  fruit  and  for  ornament 


In  the  case  of  a  three-limb  brace  another  bolt  and  perhaps  two  or 
more  may  be  placed  on  the  iron  ring.  However,  a  balance  must 
be  found  between  the  branches.  Where  long  stretches  are  made 
between  limbs,  shorter  bolts  and  chains  may  be  used  in  place  of 
the  ring  and  larger  bolts.  Other  methods  of  bracing  may  be 
employed  to  suit  conditions. 

Soil.  While  under  some  special  conditions  an  orchard  may 
be  renovated  without  breaking  up  the  sod,  the  average  orchard 
can  be  most  effectively  revived  by  thorough  cultivation.  As  with 
pruning,  the  severity  of  the  treatment  is  largely  dependent  on 
the  condition  of  the  trees.    In  the  most  extreme  cases  of  neglect 


RENOVATING   NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS  397 

the  proper  treatment  would  be  severe  pruning,  thorough  cultiva- 
tion, and  liberal  feeding,  but  the  severity  of  each  operation  should 
be  modified  in  accordance  with  the  vitality  of  the  trees.  In  some 
cases  it  may  be  advisable  to  do  the  pruning  the  first  year  and 
leave  the  cultivating  and  fertilizing  till  the  second  year,  or  to  do 
the  pruning  and  cultivating  the  first  year  and  leave  the  fertilizing 
till  the  second  year.  The  important  point  of  the  whole  matter  is 
to  avoid  seriously  disturbing  the  trees. 

Plowing  and  harrowing.  When  advisable  to  cultivate,  the  plow- 
ing should  begin  as  early  in  the  spring  as  practicable.  The  sod 
should  be  plowed  under,  and  the  soil  cut  up  with  a  disk  harrow. 
The  spike-tooth,  spring-tooth,  Acme,  or  some  other  similar  harrow 
should  then  be  used.  Cultivation  should  continue  throughout  the 
spring  and  early  summer.  Between  the  first  and  the  fifteenth  of 
July  cultivation  should  be  stopped  and  a  cover  crop  sowed. 

The  plowing  should  not  be  too  deep  at  first,  for,  as  previously 
noted,  the  roots  in  a  sod  orchard  are  very  near  the  surface.  If  good 
general  treatment  is  given,  however,  the  breaking  up  of  some  of  the 
roots  will  not  seriously  injure  the  trees  ;  on  the  contrary  it  may  tend 
to  offset  the  possible  stimulating  effect  of  excessive  pruning  and  feed- 
ing during  the  first  season.  The  harrowing  is  best  done  soon  after 
a  rain,  so  as  to  keep  a  loose  soil  mulch  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  thus  prevent  excessive  evaporation.  The  soil  should  not 
be  worked  while  wet,  for  this  will  injure  its  physical  condition. 

Under  favorable  conditions,  such  as  thin  sod  or  sandy  soil,  the 
sod  may  be  subdued  by  using  a  cutaway  disk  harrow  without  the 
need  of  plowing.  Some  orchards  cannot  be  plowed,  and  some 
owners  do  not  wish  to  plow  them,  in  which  cases  hogs  may  be 
turned  out  and  allowed  to  root  at  will.  By  burying  corn  seed  in 
the  soil  or  by  digging  up  the  soil  in  different  parts  of  the  orchard, 
they  will  soon  learn  to  plow  the  orchard  thoroughly. 

Dynamiting.  Dynamite  is  sometimes  employed  to  break  up  the 
soil  in  an  old  orchard,  but  it  should  not  be  used  too  close  to  the 
trees  nor  in  too  large  quantities.  Under  some  conditions  it  may 
be  the  best  means  of  bringing  the  soil  into  a  usable  state. 

Fertilizers.  Fertilizers  are  needed  because,  as  already  explained, 
the  soils  in  most  abandoned  orchards  are  depleted  by  exhaustive 
cropping.    It  is  well  to  remember  that  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  like 


398  THE  APPLE 

sodium  nitrate,  ammonium  sulphate,  dried  blood,  etc.  produce  a 
vigorous  growth  and  should  be  used  only  where  rapid  wood  growth 
is  desired.  The  production  of  too  much  wood  results  in  a  soft, 
succulent  growth  that  will  not  ripen  up  well  in  the  fall,  and  is 
likely  to  be  injured  by  winter  freezing.  As  a  rule  it  is  not  safe 
to  apply  nitrogenous  fertilizers  during  the  first  season  of  the  ren- 
ovating process,  except  in  some  such  form  as  raw  ground  bone 
that  will  become  available  very  slowly. 

Stable  manure.  Stable  manure  is  not  suitable,  for  the  reason 
that  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of  nitrogenous  material,  and 
applications  carrying  the  required  amount  of  mineral  elements 
would  furnish  an  excess  of  nitrogen.  If  it  should  be  necessary 
to  use  stable  manure  during  the  first  season  of  renovation,  it  should 
not  be  applied  in  large  quantities,  and  its  use  should  be  accom- 
panied by  a  quick-growing  cover  crop  to  utilize  the  surplus  nitrogen 
in  the  fall. 

Potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  While  it  is  seldom  necessary  or 
expedient  to  apply  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  it  is  usually  advisable 
to  give  a  liberal  feeding  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  Hard- 
wood ashes,  when  they  can  be  obtained  and  when  their  composition 
is  known  to  be  up  to  standard,  are  suitable  for  orchard  use.  They 
contain  about  5  per  cent  of  potash,  from  30  to  40  per  cent  of 
lime,  and  a  small  amount  of  phosphoric  acid.  Potash  may  be 
obtained  in  the  form  of  muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash.  Where 
immediate  results  are  required,  a  readily  available  form  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  such  as  acid  phosphate,  will  give  best  results.  For 
subsequent  use,  however,  one  of  the  slower  dissolving  forms,  such 
as  raw  ground  bone,  may  be  more  economically  applied. 

Applications.  In  the  renovation  of  an  apple  orchard  the  follow- 
ing formula  is  suggested  for  the  first  year  : 

Pounds  per  Acre 

Muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash 200 

Acid  phosphate 300 

Raw  ground  bone 400 

When  the  phosphoric  acid  in  the  raw  bone  becomes  available, 
the  amount  of  acid  phosphate  may  be  reduced  one  half  the  second 
season  and  omitted  entirely  the  third  and  subsequent  years.  In 
view  of  the  beneficial  effect  of  lime  on  most  soils,  400  pounds  of 


RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS  399 

basic  slag,  which  contains  a  large  proportion  of  lime,  may  be  sub- 
stituted occasionally  for  the  raw  ground  bone.  Free  lime,  or  fer- 
tilizers containing  lime,  like  basic  slag  and  wood  ashes,  should  not 
be  used  with  acid  phosphate,  for  the  reason  that  lime  renders  it 
insoluble.  Good  results  in  orchard  renovation  have  followed  the 
use  of  200  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  400  pounds  of  basic 
slag  per  acre.  The  quantities  of  the  various  materials  required  for 
single,  full-grown  trees  may  be  determined  by  dividing  the  given 
amounts  by  30. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  best  applied  after  plowing,  when  they 
should  be  thoroughly  worked  into  the  soil  by  disking.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  get  them  into  the  soil  just  as  growth  is  commencing  in 
the  spring. 

Cover  crops.  From  the  standpoint  of  orchard  renovation  the  use 
of  cover  crops  is  probably  of  greatest  importance  in  utilizing  the 
surplus  plant  food  and  moisture  in  the  fall.  This  checks  the  growth 
of  the  trees,  and  thus  sends  them  into  the  winter  in  a  well-ripened 
condition  ;  otherwise  the  stimulating  effect  of  pruning,  fertilizing, 
and  cultivating  may  prolong  the  growth  of  the  trees  into  the  fall. 

Some  cover  crops  meet  all  the  general  requirements  of  the  or- 
ehard,1  but  for  the  renovated  orchard  the  legume  group  —  vetches, 
clovers,  cowpeas,  and  soy  beans  —  are  best.  In  some  particular 
cases  where  these  have  failed  or  seem  to  be  impracticable,  rye, 
turnips,  buckwheat,  or  the  like,  may  be  substituted. 

These  cover  crops  are  generally  plowed  under  in  the  spring, 
but  if  the  trees,  after  a  few  years,  are  making  satisfactory  growth 
and  if  the  crop  is  hardy,  it  may  be  well  occasionally  to  allow  it  to 
remain  during  the  summer.  If  this  is  done,  it  should  be  prevented 
from  going  to  seed  by  mowing  it  regularly  and  leaving  it  where  it 
falls,  to  form  a  mulch. 

Orchards  poorly  situated.  There  are  few  orchards  in  which  a 
thorough  system  of  up-to-date  management  cannot  be  employed. 
Occasionally  an  orchard  is  found  on  comparatively  heavy  soil  and 
so  situated  that  if  kept  under  cultivation  the  soil  would  probably 
wash  badly.  Washing  may  often  be  prevented  by  terracing,  which 
consists  in  leaving  a  narrow  strip  of  sod  along  the  rows,  or  between 
the  rows,  and  cultivating  the  rest  of  the  ground. 
1  See  Chapter  XI. 


400  THE  APPLE 

While  better  results  may  usually  be  obtained  from  the  tilled 
orchard,  it  is  also  possible  to  produce  satisfactory  results  from  some 
systems  of  sod  treatment,  and  those  orchards  that  cannot  be  con- 
veniently cultivated  may  be  made  highly  remunerative  by  liberal 
feeding  and  mulching.  In  such  cases  the  feeding  should  be  such 
as  will  produce  a  strong  growth  of  herbage,  which  when  cut  will 
form  an  effective  mulch  and  thus  prevent  the  loss  of  moisture.  The 
liberal  application  of  stable  manure,  supplemented  with  muriate  of 
potash  and  acid  phosphate,  would  be  a  good  start  toward  bringing 
a  neglected  orchard  into  a  thrifty  condition  under  sod  treatment. 

Spraying.  Spraying  is  absolutely  necessary  for  success.  Where 
the  San  Jose  scale  is  present  or  diseases  are  common,  winter  spray- 
ing should  be  given.  Lime-sulphur  or  miscible  oils  should  be  used, 
according  to  the  complete  directions  given  in  Chapter  XX.  It  is 
a  decided  advantage  to  have  the  trees  scraped  and  pruned  before 
spraying.  It  saves  labor,  material,  and  makes  better  work  possible. 
Thoroughness  is  the  all-important  watchword. 

The  summer  spray  should  follow  the  winter  work.  The  system 
spoken  of  in  Chapter  XX  should  be  followed  carefully.  In  the 
neglected  orchard  spraying  will  be  less  effectual  the  first  season, 
the  reason  being  that  the  trees  are  so  thoroughly  infested  with 
various  kinds  of  diseases  and  insects  that  one  season's  work 
cannot  remedy  them  all.  More  careful  and  persistent  work  is 
therefore  necessary. 

Grafting.  Probably  in  most  orchards  to  be  renovated  there  are 
trees  of  the  variety  which  is  of  questionable  value.  If  these  trees 
are  desirable  in  other  respects  they  can  be  top-grafted  to  market- 
able sorts.  Occasionally  it  is  advantageous  to  top-graft  some  trees 
to  insure  proper  pollination,  this  being  especially  true  when  there 
are  solid  blocks  of  sterile  varieties  or  weak  fertile  varieties. 

Cleft-grafting  is  the  most  common  method,  although  some 
growers  practice  whip-grafting.  The  process  of  grafting  is  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  XXXII. 

When  to  graft.  Top-grafting  is  always  done  during  the  dormant 
season.  The  work  may  be  commenced  just  before  the  buds  swell 
in  the  spring  and  continue,  if  necessary,  for  four  or  five  weeks.  If 
the  season  must  be  prolonged,  it  is  better  to  begin  earlier  rather 
than  to  continue  later  than  the  time  mentioned. 


RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS 


401 


What  to  graft.  With  trees  that  are  extremely  weak  the  whole 
top  may  be  removed  and  grafted  in  one  season.  In  most  cases, 
however,  it  is  better  to  remove  only  those  branches  required  for 
grafting,  or  those  that  will  form  the  new  top.  The  remainder  may 
be  removed  the  following  season.  The  chief  objection  to  this 
practice  is  the  danger  of  injuring  the  young  grafts  when  the  brush 
is  eventually  removed. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  distribution  of  the  stubs  to  form 
a  well-shaped  tree.    It  should  be  remembered  that  the  young  grafts 


.  177.    Top-grafting 
An  orchard  at  Clyde,  New  Vork,  top-grafted 

always  grow  upward,  and  for  this  reason  one  stub  should  not  be 
located  beneath  another.  Stubs  between  I  and  2  inches  in  diameter 
are  most  suitable  for  grafting.  Those  larger  than  this  seldom  heal 
over  completely. 

The  after-treatment.  If  the  grafts  make  a  very  rank  growth  the 
first  season,  they  should  be  pinched  back  to  prevent  injury  from 
strong  winds,  If  both  grafts  grow,  one  should  be  sawed  off  about 
the  middle  of  the  summer.  In  the  following  spring  if  the  grafts 
have  not  been  treated  during  the  previous  summer,  they  should  be 
cut  back  about  half  their  length  to  induce  a  spreading  habit.  The 
pruning  of  a  graft  will  require  some  care  and  should  not  differ 
much  from  the  pruning  of  a  young  tree.    The  limbs  of  the  old 


402  THE  APPLE 

variety  left  from  the  previous  season  may  be  removed  in  March 
or  April.  In  order  to  get  them  cut  without  injuring  any  of  the 
grafts,  it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  them  up  into  several  pieces.  If 
there  are  more  grafts  than  are  necessary  to  produce  a  good  top, 
as  is  likely  to  be  the  case,  they  may  be  removed  at  the  same 
time  as  the  brush. 

Summary.  The  whole  scheme  of  renovating  may  be  summed 
up  in  a  few  words.  Good  business  principles  applied  to  a  young 
or  moderately  old  neglected  orchard  may  result  in  profitable  re- 
turns. A  good  system  of  orchard  management  thoroughly  applied 
will  develop  wonders  from  neglected,  sound  apple  trees. 

Examples  of  successful  renovation.  Many  examples  of  successful 
orchard  renovation  might  be  cited,  but  two  or  three  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  illustrate  just  how  much  may  be  done  in  certain  cases. 
The  factors  just  discussed,  particularly  the  personal  element,  have 
influenced,  to  a  marked  degree,  the  success  in  each  case. 

Dr.  F.  H.  Lattin,  a  practicing  physician,  has  been  very  success- 
ful in  his  work  of  renovation.  According  to  him  the  four  great 
factors  in  the  successful  growing  of  apples  are  pruning,  tilling, 
spraying,  and  fertilizing.  The  more  attention  is  given  to  each  of 
these,  the  better  are  the  results. 

In  order  to  give  weight  to  what  he  considers  the  proper  man- 
agement of  orchards  and  to  add  assurance  that  his  conclusions 
are  not  based  on  assumption,  guesswork,  or  hypothesis,  we  give 
here  results  from  several  Orleans  County  (New  York)  orchards 
which  have  come  under  Dr.  Lattin 's  care  for  a  period  of  five 
years.  These  orchards,  as  a  rule,  had  not  previously  been  recog- 
nized as  desirable  ones,  mainly  because  the  owners  were  poor 
managers. 

Orchard  No.  i  contains  ioo  trees,  set  in  1876,  of  the  following 
varieties:  30  Baldwin,  40  Hubbardston,  7  King,  12  fall  varieties, 
and  1 1  assorted  winter  varieties.  Dr.  Lattin  purchased  this  or- 
chard in  the  spring  of  1903.  It  had  previously  received  fairly 
good  care  and  was  recognized  locally  as  a  good  orchard.  Pruning 
in  previous  years  had  been  insufficiently  but  intelligently  performed. 
The  orchard  had  been  cropped  annually  since  planting.  Annual 
applications  of  barnyard  manure  had  been  given  it.  Spraying 
had   been   neglected.     The  yield   of  fruit  for  the  previous   five 


RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS  403 

years  had  been  about  100  barrels  annually.  Since  1903  the 
annual  yield  has  been  as  follows  : 

Year  Yield  Year  Yield  Year  Yield 

1903  287  barrels  1906  323  barrels  1909  353  barrels 

1904  460  barrels  1907  340  barrels  1910  235  barrels 

1905  206  barrels  1908  335  barrels  191  1  494  barrels 

This  gives  a  nine-year  average  of  337  barrels,  and  the  annual  receipts 
have  averaged  $758.36.  In  1907  the  fruit  on  the  40  Hubbardston 
trees,  a  single  acre,  was  sold  from  the  orchard  for  $800.00,  and  in 
191 1  the  yield  from  the  same  trees  exceeded  1000  bushels. 

Orchard  No.  2  contains  200  trees,  about  fifty  years  old,  of  the 
following  varieties  :  60  Baldwin,  60  Roxbury,  30  Rhode  Island 
Greening,  10  Tompkins  King,  ioTolman,  5  Northern  Spy,  15  fall 
varieties,  and  10  assorted  winter  varieties.  This  orchard  also  came 
under  Dr.  Lattin's  care  in  the  spring  of  1903,  and  had  previously 
received  fairly  good  care.  The  orchard  was  recognized  locally  as 
only  a  fair  one  ;  the  soil  varied  from  a  light  sand  to  a  clay  loam  ; 
at  least  25  per  cent  of  the  original  planting  had  been  killed  from 
lack  of  proper  drainage.  For  several  years  previous  the  returns 
from  this  orchard  had  averaged  about  $300.00  per  annum  ;  that 
is,  when  fruit  was  cheap  the  crop  was  such  that  the  gross  returns 
were  about  that  amount,  and  when  fruit  was  high  the  returns  were 
about  the  same.  The  fruit  of  this  orchard  harvested  or  marketed 
since  coming  into  Dr.  Lattin's  possession  has  been  as  follows  : 

Year  Yield  Year  Yield  Year  Yield 

1903  451  barrels  1906  468  barrels  T909  55-  barrels 

1904  495  barrels  190 7  493  barrels  191  o  360  barrels 

1905  477  barrels  1908  500  barrels  191  1  711  barrels 

Nine-year  average,  488  barrels,  and  the  annual  gross  receipts  have 
averaged  $1102.93. 

Orchard  No.  3  contains  1 30  trees,  perhaps  sixty  or  more  years 
old,  of  the  following  varieties  :  25  Rhode  Island  Greening,  35  Bald- 
win, 35  Roxbury,  6  Northern  Spy,  15  fall  varieties,  and  14  assorted 
winter  varieties.  The  soil  is  sandy  loam,  the  drainage  good.  In 
order  to  purchase  this  orchard,  Dr.  Lattin  was  forced  to  lease  for  a 
term  of  five  years  the  farm  on  which  this  orchard  was  located.  The 
prospect  of  ever  reclaiming  or  renovating  it  so  as  to  be  profitable 


404  THE  APPLE 

was  not  at  all  promising.  Indeed,  it  was  questionable  whether 
he  could  ever  get  any  fruit  from  it!  The  orchard  had  practically 
been  abandoned  and  its  only  recognized  value  locally  was  the 
amount  of  stove  wood  it  contained.  Before  properly  breaking  up 
the  soil,  it  was  necessary  to  grub  and  bush-hook  the  entire  orchard 
to  rid  it  of  the  blackberry  bushes,  sumach,  and  other  growth  which 
completely  covered  the  ground.  In  fact,  there  seemed  to  be  more 
truth  than  poetry  in  the  advice  one  of  Dr.  Lattin's  neighbors  gave 
at  the  time  the  ground  was  being  cleared  preparatory  to  plowing. 
"Well,  doctor,"  he  remarked,  "it  is  none  of  my  business  what  you 
do  with  your  money ;  but  take  my  advice  —  cut  down  the  apple 
trees  for  firewood  and  raise  blackberries.  The  financial  returns 
will  surely  be  greater."  The  number  of  large,  old,  broken-down 
limbs  was  so  great  that  before  the  teams  could  be  worked  in  the 
orchard,  two  strong,  active  men  had  to  spend  two  days  with  a  cross- 
cut saw  dropping  the  branches  to  the  ground  so  that  they  might 
be  removed.  This  orchard  was  plowed  in  November,  1905,  and 
was  thoroughly  and  —  according  to  the  onlookers  —  recklessly 
pruned  during  the  following  winter.  The  pruning  expense  alone 
exceeded  50  cents  a  tree.  The  crop  from  this  orchard  during  the 
previous  five  years  had  totaled  less  than  300  barrels.  Dr.  Lattin 
marketed  fruit  from  this  orchard  as  follows  : 


Year 

Yield 

Year 

Yield 

Year 

Yield 

1906 

369  barrels 

1908 

300  barrels 

1910 

275  barrels 

1907 

427  barrels 

1909 

507  barrels 

191  I 

376  barrels 

Six-year  average,  376  barrels,  and  the  annual  returns  have  averaged 
$996.52. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  state  that  the  success  in  reclaiming  this 
old  orchard  was  a  big  prop  to  the  faith  with  which  some  of  the 
most  unpromising  Oswego  County  orchards  were  attacked. 

The  average  annual  yield  an  acre  from  all  the  Orleans  County 
apple  orchards  has  been  1 1 7  barrels  ;  the  average  annual  returns 
an  acre  for  the  series  of  years,  $326  ;  the  average  annual  returns 
per  tree,  $8.15  ;  and  the  average  annual  net  profit  per  acre,  in 
round  numbers,  approximately  $150.00.  The  average  price  per 
barrel  realized  from  the  sale  (19 10  included)  was  $2.47,  and  the 
average  price  for  culls  23  cents  a  bushel. 


RENOVATING  NEGLECTED  ORCHARDS  405 

The  annual  average  yield  of  these  same  orchards  for  the  five 
years  preceding  their  coming  under  Dr.  Lattin's  care  was  about 
27  barrels  per  acre ;  the  cash  returns  per  acre,  including  culls, 
about  S60.00 ;  and  the  average  returns  per  tree,  $1.50. 

A  Vermont  orchard.  C.  T.  Holmes,  of  Charlotte,  Vermont, 
has  brought  a  small  yielding  orchard  up  to  high  standards  by 
systematic,  intelligent  work.  Just  what  he  has  done  is  given  in 
his  own  words  : 

I  was  interested  in  this  orchard  before  1907,  but  not  in  such  a  way  that  I 
could  give  it  the  kind  of  care  I  knew  it  should  have.  The  100  acres  had  been 
in  sod  for  years.  The  trees  had  been  trimmed  and  sprayed  thoroughly  for 
several  years,  but  the  yield  had  never  been  up  to  the  average  of  orchards  in 
this  section,  although  since  spraying  began,  the  quality  had  been  good. 

In  the  winter  of  1907,  fifty  acres  of  Greenings  were  given  a  good  mulch  of 
barm  aid  manure  as  far  as  the  branches  extended.  As  soon  as  frost  was  out 
of  the  ground,  I  turned  this  mulch  under  about  3  inches  —  not  deep  enough 
to  injure  the  roots.  I  don't  believe  in  pruning  a  tree  at  both  ends.  One  acre 
was  given  a  dressing  of  air-slacked  lime,  about  200  pounds  to  each  tree.  This 
acre  showed  such  marked  superiority  to  the  rest  in  color  and  size  of  foliage 
and  in  finish  and  texture  of  fruit  that  70  acres  more  were  limed  that  fall,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  orchard  will  be  limed  this  winter. 

To  go  back  to  1907,  the  plowed  ground  was  thoroughly  pulverized  with  a 
disk  harrow  and  was  gone  over  with  a  spring-tooth  harrow  about  once  every 
two  weeks  until  the  middle  of  July,  when  I  sowed  a  bushel  of  buckwheat  to 
the  acre.  Two  weeks  before  apple-picking  time,  when  the  buckwheat  was  in 
full  bloom,  it  was  rolled  with  a  low  roller  in  order  to  break  it  down  and  at  the 
same  time  provide  a  soft  cushion  for  windfalls  and  keep  them  clean.  That 
fall  I  picked  2500  barrels  from  the  50  acres  I  took  care  of,  and  600  barrels 
from  the  rest. 

In  the  spring  of  1908,  foolishly  allowing  myself  to  be  influenced  against  my 
own  judgment  by  the  opinions  of  some  of  the  "  wise  ones,"  who  said  the  crop 
of  the  previous  year  was  due  to  manure  alone,  I  manured  the  entire  orchard, 
but  cultivated  only  25  acres.  Everybody  knows  what  a  dry  season  we  had  in 
1908.  I  cultivated  the  25  acres  once  every  ten  days  until  the  middle  of  July, 
when  I  seeded  it  to  Mammoth  clover  for  a  winter  cover  crop.  The  outcome 
of  this  experiment  was  that  from  the  25  acres  cultivated  two  years  in  succession 
600  barrels  were  picked ;  the  25  acres  cultivated  but  one  year  yielded  200 
barrels  of  a  product  much  inferior  in  size  ;  and  from  the  other  half  of  the 
whole  orchard  I  got  nothing. 

I  was  now  convinced  that  intensive  cultivation  was  of  the  greatest  importance, 
and  the  following  year  the  whole  orchard  was  under  cultivation.  From  inquiries 
coming  from  all  parts  of  the  continent,  it  would  seem  that  everyone  had 
heard  of  the  crop  of  apples  which  rewarded  me  in  1909.    Of  4000  barrels,  I 


406  THE  APPLE 

picked  3100  from  the  50  acres  cultivated  two  and  three  years,  and  of  these  I 
did  not  have  10  barrels  of  stung  apples.  The  crop  was  packed  as  fancies, 
firsts,  and  seconds:  2200  barrels  fancies  (nothing  smaller  than  2J  inches); 
800  barrels  firsts  (nothing  smaller  than  2^  inches) ;  balance,  windfalls  (a  trifle 
small,  but  free  from  worms). 

The  windfalls  brought  $2. 00  per  barrel  at  the  station.  The  others  were 
placed  in  cold  storage  at  Troy,  New  York,  and  were  handled  by  a  commission 
house  in  New  York.  Fancies  have  sold  at  $7.00  and  firsts  at  $5.00.  Seconds 
were  sold  on  arrival  at  $3.00. 

The  1907  crop  netted,  after  deducting  costs  of  pick- 
ing, freight,  and  commission $3044.50 

The  crop  of  1908  netted 2000.00 

In  1909  the  net  returns  will  go  well  beyond      .    .     .  10,000.00 

[In  191 2  Mr.  Holmes  estimated  that  it  would  go  well 

beyond 20,000.00] 

In  spraying  I  use  a  two-and-a-third  horse-power  gasoline  sprayer  made  by 
the  Field  Force  Pump  Company.  Hand-power  pumps  are  too  laborious,  and 
do  not  give  force  enough  to  produce  the  fine  spray  necessary  to  reach  every 
part  of  fruit  and  foliage. 

I  spray  before  buds  open  for  bud  moth  and  cigar-case  bearer  with  Bordeaux- 
lead-arsenate  mixture,  and  again  after  the  blossoms  fall  for  codling  moth  with 
lead  arsenate  arid  lime.  My  experience  is  that  this  is  the  most  important 
spray.  The  third  spray  comes  just  before  the  apple  turns  down,  and  is  for 
blight,  fungus,  and  the  codling  moth.  Spraying  at  this  time,  if  carefully  done, 
fills  the  calyx  with  a  first  and  last  breakfast  for  the  grub  when  he  emerges 
from  the  egg.  Our  greatest  pest  is  the  codling  moth,  but  this  need  not  be 
feared  if  the  spray  nozzle  is  pointed  in  the  right  direction  and  held  there  long 
enough  during  the  second  spraying. 

With  good  cultivation,  thorough  spraying,  trimming,  and  fertilization  we 
have  nothing  to  fear  from  the  great  Northwest. 

Last,  but  not  least,  pack  true  to  mark. 

Mr.  Holmes  has  refused  $1000  an  acre  for  his  hundred  acres 
of  orchard. 


CHAPTER   XXXII 

PROPAGATION 

Seedlings.  Orchardists  may  suit  their  own  convenience  as  to 
whether  they  will  raise  or  purchase  their  seedlings.  To  raise  them, 
it  is  necessary  to  obtain  plenty  of  seeds,  which  may  be  purchased 
from  seed  houses,  from  importers  of  nursery  stock,  or  from  the 
cider  mill  in  the  form  of  pomace.  If  seeds  are  purchased,  they 
may  be  planted  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring,  not  deeper  than  i  inch, 
in  good  sandy  loam.  When  apple  pomace  is  used,  it  should  be 
strewn  in  furrows  at  a  depth  of  from  2  to  4  inches  and  covered 
with  soil.  During  the  spring  and  summer  the  seeds  will  germinate 
and  grow,  and  if  they  come  up  too  thickly  they  may  be  thinned 
either  by  discarding  some  or  by  transplanting. 

Seedlings  may  be  purchased  at  little  cost  from  the  large  nursery- 
importing  houses,  which  receive  the  small  trees  directly  from 
France  and  other  foreign  countries.  They  cost  about  $8.00  to 
$9.00  per  thousand  trees. 

Seedlings  generally  will  not  produce  fruit  true  to  the  variety 
of  the  tree  upon  which  they  were  grown,  and  therefore  must  be 
grafted  to  produce   the  desired  variety. 

Budding.  A  method  of  grafting  commonly  practiced  in  the 
eastern  United  States  is  budding.  This  system  consists  of  a  simple 
operation.  The  yearling  seedling  is  grasped  by  one  hand  of  the 
operator  about  6  or  9  inches  from  the  ground.  In  the  other  hand 
is  a  sharp  knife,  preferably  a  budding  knife.  With  this  the 
operator  makes  in  the  bark  a  slit  not  more  than  I*  inches  long 
the  long  way  of  the  tree  and  about  2  or  3  inches  from  the  level 
of  the  soil.  Across  the  top  of  the  slit,  and  at  right  angles  to  it,  an- 
other cut  is  made,  thus  forming  a  T.  The  back  of  the  knife  or  end 
of  the  handle  may  be  used  to  loosen  the  bark  at  the  cambium  layer. 

Scions  from  trees  that  are  heavy  bearers  of  desirable  varieties 
should  be  at  hand.  Cut  one  of  these  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch 
just  below  a  bud.    Cut  out  one  bud  and  a  small  portion  of  bark  just 

407 


408 


THE  APPLE 


below  and  above  the  bud.  Be  careful  not  to  include  much  (if  any) 
wood.  Insert  the  bud  in  the  T-slit ;  draw  the  side  bark  close  about 
it  and  secure  it  with  a  small  piece  of  raffia  or  twine  just  below  and 
above  the  bud.  Watch  the  bud  and  cut  the  raffia  when  it  has  united 
well.  When  it  lias  developed  to  a  length  of  one  foot,  cut  the  seed- 
ling limbs  or  top  from  the  tree,  making  a  cut  quite  near  the  bud 
and  on  a  slant.    The  result  is  seedling  roots  and  a  grafted  top. 

Budding  may  be  done  in  the  spring,  but  is  usually  performed 
in  August  and  September.  The  bark  should  slip  slightly  for  the 
best  work  ;  it  should  slip  easily  at  this  time. 


Shield  buddinir 


Root-grafting.  The  West  seems  to  prefer  trees  that  are  root- 
grafted,  some  sections  preferring  piece  roots,  others  whole  roots. 

The  seedlings  which  are  to  be  grafted  are  treated  in  two  ways. 
The  more  common  way  is  to  cut  off  the  tops  at  the  crown,  and  to 
cut  each  root  into  two  or  three  pieces  from  2  to  4  inches  long, 
according  to  the  diameter  and  length  of  the  root.  A  scion  is  then 
grafted  into  each  piece  by  the  whip-grafting  method.  This  is  called 
a  piece-root  graft  and  the  tree  grown  from  it  a  piece-root  tree. 
A  second  way  is  to  put  one  scion  into  the  crown  of  each  seed- 
ling root,  which  is  not  cut  except  to  shorten  the  side  roots  and 
the  extreme  tip.  This  is  a  whole-root  graft,  and  will  make  a 
whole-root  tree. 


PROPAGATION 


409 


In  order  to  determine  the  advantages  of  each  system  of  root- 
grafting,  experiments  were  carried  out  by  many  state  experiment 
stations.  These  showed  that  in  their  earl)-  life  whole-root  trees  do 
better  than  piece-root  trees,  but  that  later  there  is  little  difference. 

Both  whole-root  and  piece-root  grafted  trees  are  usually  cut  down 
to  the  ground  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  and  start  out  the  follow- 
ing spring  on  equal  terms  as  regards  the  size  of  the  top.  The 
piece-root  graft  has  made  many  new  roots  during  the  first  year, 
and  a  difference  in  growth  between  the  two  during  the  second 


Fig.  179.    Whip-grafting 


year  is  seldom  noticeable.  The  disparity  between  the  two  grows 
constantly  less  as  the  trees  get  older.  After  three  or  four  years 
one  can  rarely  detect  the  difference  between  them  in  vigor  or  size. 

The  length  of  the  scion  used  in  root-grafting  is  thought  to  make 
some  difference ;  however,  experiments  carried  on  at  the  Kansas 
Station  have  clearly  shown  that  for  practical  purposes  the  length 
of  the  scion  is  of  minor  importance,  but  that  a  length  of  from 
6  to  9  inches  is  preferable. 

Comparison  of  budding  and  root-grafting.  Practice  and  experi- 
ments have  fully  demonstrated  that,  so  far  as  the  method  of 
propagation  is  concerned,  there  is  absolutely  no  difference  in  the 


4io  •     THE  APPLE 

value  of  root-grafted  and  budded  trees.  It  has  been  proved  beyond 
any  question  that  orchards  of  root-grafted  trees  are  as  uniformly 
vigorous,  productive,  and  long-lived  as  orchards  of  budded  trees. 
An  unbiased  examination  of  the  older  orchards  of  the  East  and 
West  should  convince  one  of  this  fact. 

Whip-grafting.  This  process  is  to  cut  the  tree  on  a  slant  or 
angle  and  not  straight  across.  The  scion  is  cut  in  a  like  manner. 
With  a  sharp  knife  the  cut  is  made  with  one  stroke.  A  tongue 
is  made  on  each  slanting  cut  of  both  stock  and  scion  by  slightly 
pushing  the  knife  into  the  wood.  The  scion  is  then  placed  on  the 
stock,  cut  surface  against  cut  surface,  and  the  tongues  lapped  so 
that  they  hold  the  scion  in  place. 

It  is  important  to  have  the  cut  of  both  scion  and  stock  similar, 
and  to  have  the  cambium  layer  of  the  scion  coincide  with  the 
corresponding  layer  on  the  stock  either  entirely,  where  the  stock 
and  scion  are  the  same  size,  or  partly,  where  the  stock  is  larger 
than  the  scion.  Sometimes  it  may  help  to  tie  the  scion  to  the 
stock  with  raffia  or  twine,  but  this  should  be  removed  soon  after 
a  union  is  made. 

Whip-grafting  is  sometimes  used  in  top-working  trees,  as  well 
as  in  root-grafting.  The  operation  generally  takes  place  in  the 
spring. 

Cleft-grafting.  This  method  of  grafting  is  the  most  common 
and  the  easiest  to  perform.  A  branch  between  I  and  i]-  inches 
in  diameter  is  cut  with  a  pruning  saw,  care  being  taken  not  to  loosen 
or  tear  the  bark  on  the  stub.  If  the  saw  is  coarse  the  stub  may 
be  dressed  with  a  sharp  knife,  which  will  tend  to  hasten  the 
callousing.  A  grafting  tool  may  be  made  by  any  local  blacksmith 
from  an  old  file,  and  will  be  found  more  serviceable  than  the  other 
forms  now  on  the  market.  The  important  characteristics  of  this 
tool  are  the  heavy,  curved  blade,  sharpened  on  the  inner  side,  and 
the  wedge  on  the  end,  placed  well  away  from  the  back  of  the 
blade.  The  curved  blade  prevents  the  unnecessary  loosening  of 
the  bark  in  making  the  cleft,  and  therefore  is  better  than  a  straight 
blade.  The  stub  is  split  with  this  tool  just  enough  to  accommodate 
the  scions.  The  cleft  is  then  held  open  with  the  small  wedge,  and 
two  trimmed  scions  are  placed  in  the  cleft.  Each  scion  should 
contain  about  three  buds,  and  the  lower  end  of  the  scion  should 


PROPAGATION 


411 


be  trimmed  with  a  sharp  knife  to  a  wedge  about  1  or  1.]  inches 
long,  with  the  outer  edge  of  the  wedge  thicker  than  the  other. 
It  is  very  important  that  the  sides  of  this  wedge  be  cut  perfectly 
even,  and  since  the  union  of  the  scion  and  stock  takes  place  at 
the  cambium  layer  or  inner  bark,  it  is  also  important  that  the 
inner  bark  of  the  scion  come  in  contact  with  the  inner  bark  of 
the  stock.  Hence  the  scion  is  left  a  little  thicker  on  the  outside 
edge  to  insure  a  pressure  of  the  stock  against  the  scion  at  this 


Fig.  180.   Cleft-graftinj 


point.  Frequently  the  scion  is  tipped  slightly  outward  to  bring 
the  cambium  layers  into  contact  at  one  point  at  least.  In  prepar- 
ing the  scion  it  is  also  advisable  to  trim  it  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  have  a  bud  just  above  the  wedge  on  the  thicker  side,  so  that 
when  it  is  placed  in  the  stock  it  will  appear  just  above  the  cleft 
on  the  outside.  After  the  scions  are  trimmed  and  placed  in  the 
stock,  the  wedged  end  of  the  grafting  tool  may  be  released  from 
the  cleft  and  the  graft  waxed. 

If  both  the  grafts  grow,  the  weaker  one  should  be  cut  out  the 
following  spring  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  crotch,  and  the  stub, 
if  not  entirely  healed,  may  be  again  covered  with  wax. 


412  THE  APPLE 

Time  to  graft.  The  trees  may  be  grafted  any  time  in  the 
spring  before  the  sap  begins  to  flow.  It  is  generally  performed 
about  the  time  the  trees  are  pruned  in  the  spring.  If  the  trees 
are  not  grafted  at  this  time  and  the  scions  are  kept  dormant  in 
some  cool  place,  such  as  an  ice  house,  the  grafting  may  be  success- 
fully done  later  in  the  spring  when  the  cutting  will  not  result 
in  serious  bleeding. 

The  most  important  factor  in  top-working  large  trees  is  the 
selection  of  the  branches  to  form  the  top.  Scions  when  grafted 
on  horizontal  branches,  instead  of  continuing  to  grow  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  original  branch,  always  grow  upward.  This  tends  to 
produce  a  narrow,  high-topped  tree.  Great  care  should  be  exer- 
cised, therefore,  in  selecting  branches  well  away  from  the  trunk  and 
covering  all  the  fruit-bearing  surface  of  the  tree.  Scions  seem  to 
grow  more  successfully  on  branches  which  do  not  exceed  1 1  inches 
in  diameter  at  the  point  of  grafting.  In  top-working  an  old  tree, 
about  a  third  of  the  branches  that  are  to  be  grafted  should  be 
worked  each  year,  as  the  cutting  of  more  in  a  single  season  would 
prove  injurious  to  the  tree.  It  will  therefore  take  from  three  to 
five  years  to  renew  the  entire  top.  Where  the  fruit-bearing  surface 
is  large,  this  will  often  necessitate  the  making  of  from  10  to 
20  grafts  each  season  for  three  successive  years.  All  the  im- 
portant branches  should  be  grafted,  and  it  is  safer  to  graft  too 
many  branches  and  be  obliged  to  cut  out  a  few  in  later  years  than 
not  to  graft  enough. 

Other  forms  of  grafting.  Many  other  forms  of  grafting  apple 
trees  are  in  use,  but  they  are  by  no  means  as  common  as  the 
foregoing.  A  mastery  of  the  three  systems  described  above  is  all 
that  is  necessary  for  successful  and  practical  work. 

Grafting  wax.  A  good  grafting  wax  is  made  from  the  following 
formula  :  4  pounds  resin,  2  pounds  beeswax,  1  pound  beef  tallow. 

Pulverize  the  resin  and  cut  up  the  beeswax  and  tallow.  Boil 
together  slowly  until  all  are  entirely  dissolved.  Pour  this  into 
a  pail  of  cold  water,  and  after  greasing  the  hands,  squeeze  all  the 
water  out  of  the  wax  and  pull,  as  one  would  molasses  candy,  until 
the  wax  becomes  light  colored.  If  wrapped  in  oilpaper,  this  may 
be  stored  until  needed.  In  cold  weather,  when  the  wax  is  hard 
to  work,  it  should  be  slightly  heated  before  using. 


PROPAGATION  413 

For  cleft-grafts  pull  the  wax  out  into  wide  ribbons,  and  cover 
first  the  sides  of  the  cleft,  then  the  entire  upper  surface  of  the 
stub,  being  especially  careful  to  press  the  wax  firmly  around  the 
scion  to  prevent  the  stock  and  scions  from  drying  out.  The  tips 
of  the  scion  may  also  be  covered  with  wax. 

Waxed  string  can  be  made  by  dropping  a  ball  of  darning  cotton 
into  the  boiling  wax  and  allowing  it  to  cool  or  harden.  The  raffia 
used  in  tying  grafts  may  be  purchased  from  seed  stores  or  nursery- 
men ;  it  consists  of  ribbonlike  strips  of  fiber  from  the  palm  tree. 

Selection  of  scions.  Scions  are  selected  from  bearing  trees  of 
the  desired  variety.  They  may  be  cut  at  any  time  before  the  buds 
swell  in  the  spring,  although  the  best  time  is  late  fall  or  early 
winter.  Only  wood  from  bearing  branches  of  the  past  season's 
growth  is  selected,  and  after  cutting  this  into  lengths  of  from 
8  to  12  inches,  it  is  plainly  labeled  and  tied  into  bunches  of  con- 
venient size.  These  should  then  be  packed  in  sand  or  sawdust, 
and  stored  in  a  cool  cellar  or  some  other  suitable  place  to  prevent 
them  from  starting  into  growth  before  grafting. 

Relation  between  stock  and  scion.  The  variations  reported  to 
have  been  due  to  grafting  are  almost  endless.  Season,  shape, 
color,  taste,  growth,  and  almost  every  quality  possessed  by  tree 
fruit  is  alleged  to  have  been  changed  in  some  degree.  Yet  trees 
are  planted  each  year,  propagated  by  the  usual  methods,  and  the 
expected  results  are  obtained. 

Definite  experiments  carried  oh  by  scientific  men  as  to  the  effect 
of  the  stock  on  the  scion  have  not  shown  that  there  is  any  percep- 
tible differences  in  tree  or  fruit,  but  more  thorough  study  should 
be  undertaken  along  this  line  in  the  future.  Of  the  effect  of  the 
scion  on  the  stock  very  few  concern  themselves,  for  it  is  of  no 
practical  importance.  There  is,  however,  some  definite  relation 
between  certain  stocks  and  scions.  This  is  particularly  noticeable 
when  a  scion  will  not  readily  unite  with  the  stock,  or  vice  versa. 
Enough  experiments  along  this  line  have  not  been  made  to  enable 
us  to  state  the  relation  of  a  particular  stock  to  a  particular  scion, 
and  further  study  is  needed  before  practical  advice  can  be  given. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

POLLINATION 

Undoubtedly  orchardists  have  observed  apple  trees  which  blos- 
somed well  but  did  not  set  a  fair  amount  of  fruit.  Such  a  failure 
may  be  due  to  a  number  of  causes  : 

1 .  Poorly  nourished  fruit  buds. 

2.  Injury  to  the  pistil  during  winter  (not  easily  observed  with 
the  eye  alone). 

3.  Injury  to  the  blossoms  by  fungi. 

4.  Injury  to  the  blossoms  by  rain. 

5.  Injury  to  the  blossoms  by  strong  or  drying  winds. 

6.  Injury  by  insects. 

7.  Lack  of  proper  pollination  (self-sterile  and  self- fertile  trees). 
Probably  the  most  important  factor  is  the  last.    Many  times  total 

failure  in  the  setting  of  fruit  is  due  to  self-sterility.  Properly  speak- 
ing, a  self-sterile  tree  is  one  which,  to  bear  well,  must  have  other  varie- 
ties near  it.   But  a  tree  is  not  self-sterile  when  it  does  not  blossom. 

Self-sterile  trees.  The  following  varieties  are  more  or  less 
self-sterile  in  New  York  State  :  Baldwin,  Ben  Davis,  Fallawater, 
Oldenburg,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Red  Astrachan,  Smith  Cider. 

A  list  from  the  West  showing  both  self-sterile  and  self-fertile 
varieties  is  interesting : 

Variety  Pollen  Bearers 

Arkansas Abundant 

Arkansas  Black Medium 

Autumn  Bough Medium 

Bailey  Sweet Medium 

Baldwin Medium 

Ben  Davis Medium 

Bietigheimer Shy 

Bough Abundant 

Canada  Keinette Abundant 

Domine        Medium 

Early  Strawberry Abundant 

414 


POLLINATION  415 

Variety  Pollen  Bearers 

Esopus Medium 

Fallawater Medium 

Gano Abundant 

Golden  Sweet Medium 

Gravenstein Shy 

Grimes Shy 

Haas Abundant 

Hoover Medium 

Jewett  Red Medium 

Jonathan Medium 

Limbertwig Medium 

Longfellow Abundant 

Maiden  Blush Medium 

Mann Abundant 

Melon Medium 

Missouri Medium 

Montreal  (crab) Medium 

Oldenburg Medium 

Pewaukee Medium 

Ralls Abundant 

Rambo Shy 

Red  Canada Medium 

Red  Cheek  Pippin Abundant 

Red  Golden  Pippin Medium 

Rhode  Island  Greening Abundant 

Rome  Beauty Abundant 

Saint  Lawrence Abundant 

Scott  Winter Abundant 

Shiawassee Shy 

Stark Abundant 

Summer  Pearmain Shy 

Tolman Abundant 

Tompkins  King Abundant 

Transcendent  Crab Shy 

Twenty  Ounce Abundant 

Wagener Abundant 

Wealthy        Medium 

White  Pippin Shy 

Willow Medium 

Winesap Shy 

Yellow  Bellflower Medium 

Yellow  Newtown Medium 

Yellow  Transparent Shy 

York  Imperial Abundant 


416 


THE  APPLE 


The  practical  bearing  of  the  self-sterility  problem  is  this  :  There 
are  certain  varieties  of  fruit  which  we  wish  to  grow  for  the  general 
market,  but  we  find  that  they  are  not  productive  when  planted  alone. 
They  need  the  pollen  of  other  varieties  to  make  them  fruitful.  We 
must  therefore  do  what  some  of  our  most  intelligent  fruit-growers 
have  been  doing  for  years  —  plant  other  varieties  near  them  as 
pollenizers.  Cross-pollination  of  varieties  is  no  longer  a  theory  ; 
it  has  become  an  established  orchard  practice. 


Fig.  iSi.    Ready  for  the  bees 
A  very  fine  orchard  in  full  bloom,  at  the  right  stage  for  pollinating 

It  would  appear  that  the  only  thing  to  be  done  now  is  to  find 
out  what  varieties  are  inclined  to  be  self-sterile  and  what  varieties 
are  best  adapted  for  fertilizing  them.  Rut  as  a  matter  of  fact,  cross- 
pollination  gives  better  results  with  nearly  all  varieties,  whether 
they  are  self-sterile  or  self-fertile.  A  variety  may  be  able  to  bear 
good  fruit  when  it  is  planted  alone,  but  it  will  often  bear  better 
fruit  if  suitable  varieties  are  near  it.  Mixed  orchards  are  every- 
where more  productive  than  solid  blocks.  For  example,  in  western 
New  York  it  is  a  common  report  that  Baldwins  in  mixed  orchards 
are   more  uniformly  productive  than   Baldwins  in  large  blocks. 


POLLINATION  417 

Furthermore,  although  a  variety  may  be  able  to  set  an  abundance 
of  fruit  with  its  own  pollen,  this  fruit  will  often  be  smaller  than  if 
other  pollen  were  supplied. 

Pollen-carriers.  The  pollen  of  one  variety  is  carried  to  the 
pistils  of  another  in  two  natural  ways  —  by  the  wind  and  by  in- 
sects. There  are  many  kinds  of  insects,  such  as  bees,  wasps,  and 
flies,  which  aid  in  the  cross-pollination  of  orchard  fruits,  and  of 
these  the  wild  bees  of  several  species  are  probably  the  most  impor- 
tant. But  few  of  the  wild  bees  can  live  in  a  large  orchard,  espe- 
cially if  it  is  well  tilled  ;  therefore,  as  the  extent  and  thoroughness 
of  cultivation  increases,  the  number  of  these  natural  aids  to  cross- 
pollination  decreases  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  keep  domestic 
honey  bees  for  this  purpose. 

Every  large  orchard  where  the  trees  are  numbered  by  the  thou- 
sands should  have  near  by  a  bee  yard  of  at  least  fifty  swarms  to 
help  in  thoroughly  pollinating  the  blossoms  and  obtaining  the  best 
results.  Bees  will  not  be  poisoned  by  the  spraying  of  fruit  trees  with 
poisoned  substances  if  the  work  is  done  at  the  right  time,  which  is 
just  after  the  blossoms  fall.  No  sensible  orchardist  will  spray  his 
trees  when  in  full  bloom  and  thus  poison  one  of  his  best  friends 
—  the  bees. 

Pollination  by  hand.  In  the  West  some  attention  has  been 
given  to  pollinating  the  blossoms  by  hand.  Large  numbers  of  buds 
have  been  gathered  from  the  trees  and  forced  in  either  greenhouses 
or  dwellings,  and  the  pollen  collected  and  later  applied  to  the  trees 
with  camel's-hair  brushes.  The  results  have  been  quite  satisfactory, 
particularly  on  trees  that  were  more  or  less  self-sterile. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

BREEDING 

The  apple  has  been  cultivated  for  many  centuries,  yet  in  study- 
ing the  history  of  the  three  thousand  or  more  varieties  we  find 
that  practically  all  have  come  from  chance  seedlings  and  not  from 
systematic  breeding.  In  fact,  the  little  breeding  that  has  been 
done  has  been  more  conspicuous  for  its  error  and  laxity  than  for 
its  truth  and  exactness. 

One  reason  for  the  lack  of  interest  in  the  breeding  of  apples 
may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  it  is  especially  difficult  to  put  the 
principles  and  methods  of  this  science  into  practice.  Other  reasons 
may  be  found  in  the  smallness  of  the  pecuniary  reward,  the  amount 
of  money  necessary  to  carry  on  the  work,  and  the  length  of  time 
one  must  wait  for  results.  The  discoveries  of  Mendel  and  his 
followers  have  enabled  plant  breeders  to  improve  their  methods 
greatly,  but  more  experience  in  handling  this  material  is  necessary 
before  much  real  good  work  can  be  accomplished. 

The  flower.  The  blossom  of  the  apple  which  is  hermaphrodite, 
that  is,  both  male  and  female  organs  are  found  in  the  same  flower, 
should  be  carefully  studied  before  experiments  are  made  in  breed- 
ing. After  thoroughly  studying  the  construction  of  this  blossom, 
the  next  step  is  to  learn  the  operation  of  emasculation,  the  object 
of  which  is  to  prevent  self-pollination.  This  consists  in  removing 
the  anthers  from  the  flower,  rapidity,  as  well  as  efficiency,  being 
necessary  in  work  of  this  nature. 

Methods  of  emasculation.1  Grasp  the  blossom  with  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  one  hand  and  the  tips  of  the  petals  with  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  other  hand  ;  then  by  simply  giving 
the  wrist  a  quick  upward  or  downward  movement  the  petals  can 
be  easily  detached  from  the  blossom.  Now  with  one  or  two  quick 
movements  with  the  scissors  remove  the  anthers,  and  the  pistils 

1  Bulletin  ATo.  104,  Oregon  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
418 


BREEDING 


419 


The  first 
a  blossom 
Holding  petals  ready  for  removing.    (Oregon 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station) 


are  ready  to  receive  the  pollen.    After  the  application  of  pollen 
is  made  the  emasculated  blossom  is  inclosed  within  a  bag  and 

allowed  to  remain  until  fecun- 
dation has  taken  place  and 
all  danger  from  the  action  of 
foreign  pollen  is  over.  After 
every  pollination,  label  each 
bag  in  such  a  way  that  there 
will  be  no  question  as  to  what 
variety  of  pollen  has  been 
used.  As  the  apples  approach 
maturity  they  should  be  in- 
closed in  cheesecloth  bags. 
This  protects  the  fruits  from 
being  picked  accidentally. 

The  object  in  removing  the 
petals  is  to  tell  just  where  to 
make  the  cuts  without  injuring 
the  other  parts  of  the  flower.  Several  methods  of  emasculating 
the  blossoms  are  used  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  one 
being  to  remove  the  corolla 
with  the  aid  of  a  small, 
sharp  pair  of  scissors,  leaving 
the  emasculated  blossom.  A 
sharp  scalpel  has  also  been 
fairly  successful  in  perform- 
ing the  work.  It  has  been 
found  that  in  every  case 
where  the  sepals  were  re- 
moved with  the  petals,  a 
malformation  of  the  apple 
resulted.  It  is  evident  that 
emasculation  must  be  skill- 
fully done,  for  the  slightest 
mutilation  causes  a  malfor- 
mation of  the  calyx  end  of 
the  apple.  The  percentage  of  emasculated  blossoms  that  set  fruit 
is  larger  when  the  sepals  of  the  flower  are  not  injured  in  any  way. 


Fig.  183.    The  first  step  completed 

Removal  of  the  petals.    (Oregon  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station) 


420 


THE  APPLE 


-.  -  ^^gjjf  En 

pX^A 

i 

jf J 

h 

Fig.  184.    The  next  step  in  pollinating 

Removing  the  stamens  by  the  aid  of  scissors. 
(Oregon  Agricultural  Experiment  Station) 


Gathering    pollen.     An    adequate    supply    of    pollen    must   be 

secured ;    and   in   regions   where   many  of   the   leading  varieties 

blossom  together,  it  must  be 
gathered  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities beforehand.  One  of  the 
simplest  ways  of  procuring 
pollen  is  to  cover  with  paper 
sacks  branches  that  are  nearly 
in  flower,  the  ripened  anthers 
of  these  blossoms  furnishing 
the  necessary  pollen.  Another 
method,  used  in  many  cases 
of  emergency,  is  to  put  in 
a  warm  room  unripe  anthers 
from  flowers  about  to  open. 
In  a  few  hours  the  anthers 
will     dehisce.      Perhaps    the 

most  popular  way  of  collecting  pollen  is  to  pick  off  the  unopened 

buds,  remove  the  anthers,  and  leave  them  to  dehisce. 
Another  method  practiced 

in  some  sections  is  to  select 

small  twigs  having  from  three 

to  six  clusters  of  flower  buds. 

These  twigs  are  placed  in  a 

forcing  house  or  in  a  south 

window  of  the  home  a  week 

or  two  before  the  trees  come 

into  blossom.    If  the  weather 

is  good  the  blossoms  will  open 

in  three  or  four  days.     If  it 

is  desired   to  obtain   quicker 

results,   warm  water  may  be 

used  in  place  of  cold  and  the 

stems   of   the   twigs   may  be 

split.    A  gain  of  from  one  to 

two  days  can  be  realized  by  the  use  of  warm  water  and  the  split- 
ting of  stems,  a  very  important  factor  if  pollen  is  desired  at  a 

certain  time. 


Fin.  1S5.    Tistils  after  removal  of  the 

stamens 

At  left  improperly  emasculated  ;  at  right  prop- 
erly emasculated,  sepals  intact.   (Oregon  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station) 


BREEDING 


421 


After  the  anthers  dehisce  and  the  pollen  becomes  ripe  a  small 
vial,  properly  labeled,  is  used  to  collect  the  pollen.  By  removing 
the  hoods  the  pollen  can  be  easily  dusted  into  the  vials  by  the  aid 
of  small  camel's-hair  brushes.  If  sufficiently  dried,  the  pollen  will 
keep  in  these  vials  until  ready  for  use  ;  if  it  is  not  dried  enough, 
fermentation  is  likely  to  set  in.  Very  gratifying  results  have  been 
obtained  by  collecting  in  this  manner. 

It  is  not  known  just  how  long  pollen  can  be  kept  before  it  loses 
its  viability.  Good  results  have  been  had  from  pollen  that  was 
gathered  three  weeks  before. 

If  pollen  is  taken  from 
blossoms  when  on  the  tree, 
accuracy  is  safeguarded  by 
taking  it  from  a  flower 
which  has  been  protected 
by  a  paper  bag. 

How  to  apply  pollen.  It 
has  been  found  that  the 
quickest  and  most  effective 
way  of  applying  the  pollen 
to  the  pistils  is  by  the  use 
of  a  small,  pointed  camel's- 
hair  brush  having  a  handle 
from  6  to  8  inches  in  length. 
While  more  or  less  pollen 
is  wasted  in  making  the  application,  the  disadvantages  are  greatly 
offset  by  the  advantages.  Brush  pollination  is  the  most  practicable 
method,  when  many  thousands  of  blossoms  must  be  pollinated. 
The  simplest  way  to  apply  pollen  is  to  touch  the  stigma  with  a 
dehisced  anther ;  another  way  is  to  clip  the  thumb  or  forefinger  in 
the  pollen  and  carry  it  to  the  stigma  of  the  pistil. 

When  using  a  camel's-hair  brush,  too  much  care  cannot  be 
exercised  in  making  the  application.  Enough  pollen  should  be 
placed  on  the  stigma  so  that  it  can  be  readily  seen.  In  all  cases 
each  kind  of  pollen  for  each  variety  pollinated  must  have  its  own 
brush  if  scientific  results  are  to  be  obtained.  Fingers  and  tools 
used  in  pollination  must  be  sterilized  ;  this  can  probably  be  best 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  alcohol  before  each  operation. 


The  most  interesting  step 


Applying  pollen  to  the  pistils.    (Oregon  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station) 


422 


THE  APPLE 


When  to  make  application.  There  appears  to  be  considerable 
controversy  as  to  the  best  time  of  applying  the  pollen  to  the 
pistils.  The  indications  are  that  the  receptivity  of  the  pistil 
depends  much  upon  the  maturity  of  the  bud  at  the  time  of  emas- 
culation. This  receptivity  is  also  influenced  by  such  factors  as 
climatic  conditions,  vigor  and  age  of  tree,  variety,  condition  of 
soil,  and  general  care  of  the  orchard  reduced. 

The  paramount  question  is  whether  better  results  can  be  obtained 
by  applying  the  pollen  at  the  time  of  emasculation  or  waiting  until 
the  pistil  is  receptive.    Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by 

applying  the  pollen  to  the 
pistil  as  soon  as  the  blos- 
som is  emasculated,  but  this 
success  may  have  been  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  blos- 
soms treated  were  such  as 
would,  under  normal  con- 
ditions, open  the  day  fol- 
lowing the  operation.  It  is 
evident,  from  experiments 
made,  that  in  a  great  many 
varieties  the  pistils  are  re- 
ceptive before  the  blossoms 
open.  This  tends  to  dem- 
onstrate that  nature  encour- 
ages cross-pollination  rather 
than  self-pollination.  One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  pollinating 
at  the  time  of  emasculation  is  the  saving  of  time,  as  the  bags  will 
not  have  to  be  removed.  Many  plant  breeders,  however,  do  not 
make  the  application  until  two  or  three  days  after  the  blossoms 
have  opened,  and  their  results  have  been  satisfactory. 

The  treated  flower  is  inclosed  in  a  paper  bag  to  protect  it  from 
other  pollen  until  seeds  have  set.  After  a  week  or  two  the  paper 
bag  is  removed,  and  one  of  cheesecloth  or  mosquito  netting  is 
substituted,  to  remain  as  protection  for  the  fruit  until  harvested. 

Pollinating  should  be  done  on  bright,  sunny  days,  and  is  gener- 
ally accomplished  with  much  greater  ease  and  assurity  on  calm 
still  days. 


Fig.  187.    Bagging 

A  good  method  of  bagging  and  labeling  a  specially 
pollinated   flower.     (Oregon  Agricultural   Experi- 
ment Station) 


BREEDING 


423 


Planting.  After  the  fruit  is  harvested  and,  therefore,  well 
ripened,  the  seeds  may  be  removed  and  planted  in  the  soil  or 
packed  in  moist  sand.  Great  care  is  necessary  in  handling  the 
seeds  to  prevent  mistakes  and  to  guard  against  injury. 

The  seedling  trees  may  be  left  in  the  nursery  row  the  first 
year,  but  it  is  important  to  give  them  more  room  for  thorough 
development  after  the  second  or  third  year.  A  space  8x8  ft. 
is  large  enough  until  the  seedlings  are  tested  as  to  desirability. 


WW 


Fig.  iSS.    Results  of  special  pollination 

At  the  left,  self-pollinated  Newtowns,  at  least  one  third  of  the  apples  undersized  ;  at  the  right, 

Yellow  Newtowns  pollinated  with  (irimes  Golden,  no  small  apples.    (Oregon  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station) 

Crosses.  The  breeding  of  apples  on  a  considerable  scale  has  been 
carried  on  by  several  experiment  stations  and  by  individuals. 
The  Geneva  Experiment  Station  (New  York)  has  recently  pub- 
lished a  report  of  some  of  its  work  along  these  lines.  A  careful 
study  of  this  bulletin  resulted  in  selecting  some  of  the  crosses 
which  have  given  good  results.    They  are  the  following : 

1.  Ben  Davis  crossed  with  Green  Newtown  produced  the 
Clinton,  an  apple  very  attractive  in  appearance  and  of  good 
quality.  The  size,  shape,  and  quality  resembled  the  Green  Newtown, 
but  the  color  is  a  handsome  red. 


424  THE  APPLE 

2.  Ben  Davis  crossed  with  Mcintosh  produced  the  Cortland, 
an  apple  closely  resembling  the  Mcintosh  in  color,  shape,  and 
flesh.  It  gives  promise  of  being  a  valuable  commercial  apple 
of  the  Mcintosh  type. 

3.  Esopus  crossed  with  Ben  Davis  produced  the  Nassau.  The 
Nassau  is  much  superior  to  the  Ben  Davis  in  quality,  but  is  hardly 
equal  to  the  Esopus.  The  color  is  more  like  that  of  the  Ben 
Davis,  and  its  contrasting  red  and  yellow  is  most  attractive. 

4.  Sutton  crossed  with  Northern  Spy  produced  the  Oswego. 
This  resembles  the  Northern  Spy,  though  it  is  larger,  more  conical, 
and  brighter  in  color.  The  flesh  resembles  that  of  the  Spy  in  color 
and  texture,  but  the  flavor  is  different,  although  equally  good. 

5.  Ben  Davis  crossed  with  Mother  produced  the  Rockland.  The 
fruit  of  this  cross  is  most  pleasing  in  appearance,  although  small, 
resembling  the  Mother  in  size,  shape,  color,  texture,  flavor,  and 
quality.    This  ought  to  be  especially  valuable  as  a  dessert  fruit. 

6.  Ben  Davis  crossed  with  Mother  produced  the  Schenectady. 
This  new  variety  is  remarkably  attractive,  its  size,  shape,  and  color 
all  being  most  pleasing.  It  is  not  quite  high  enough  in  quality  to 
be  called  a  first-class  dessert  fruit,  but  it  is  much  better  than  the 
Ben  Davis  and  is  a  splendid  apple. 

7.  Ralls  crossed  with  Northern  Spy  produced  the  Schoharie, 
which  is  of  proper  size  but  somewhat  dull  in  color.  Its  flavor  is 
such  as  to  make  it  desirable  both  as  a  cooking  apple  and  as  a 
dessert  apple.  It  is  of  the  type  of  the  Northern  Spy  in  shape  and 
color,  and  its  flesh,  while  more  yellow  than  that  of  the  Northern 
Spy,  has  the  same  delicious  flavor  and  aroma. 

Aim  in  breeding.  The  aim  in  breeding  is  to  produce  varie- 
ties which  have  the  greatest  number  of  desirable  characters  and 
the  fewest  undesirable  ones.  Mendel  has  shown  that  characters  are 
transmitted  as  units,  which  segregate  in  accordance  with  a  definite 
formula.  It  remains,  then,  for  the  breeder  to  take  certain  characters 
from  one  parent,  others  from  another,  and  make  as  many  combi- 
nations as  possible  and  select  the  best  from  these.  The  first  task 
is  to  determine  how  characters  are  inherited,  after  which  they  can 
be  associated  or  disassociated  somewhat  as  the  breeder  wishes. 

The  determination  of  the  factors  by  which  the  various  characters 
are  transmitted  will  prove  a  difficult  task.     If  all  were   simple 


BREEDING  425 

characters  depending  upon  a  single  factor,  the  work  would  be  greatly 
simplified,  but  it  is  likely  that  some  of  the  most  important  characters 
of  apples  depend  upon  the  simultaneous  presence  of  several  distinct 
factors.  Thus,  in  the  crosses  given,  there  are  indications  that  shape, 
size,  and  color  of  fruit  may  depend  on  the  presence  or  absence  of 
several  factors. 

Another  difficulty  is  that  characters,  if  recessive,  may  not  appear 
in  the  F1  generation.1  This  skipping  of  a  generation  will  greatly 
delay  and  complicate  the  breeding  of  plants  that  are  propagated 
vegetatively,  for  if  the  desired  characters  do  not  appear  in  the 
intermediate  generation,  propagation  cannot  proceed  at  once. 

In  the  case  of  certain  plants  it  has  been  found  that  some  charac- 
ters are  linked  together  and  are  so  transmitted,  while  others  repel 
one  another  and  refuse  to  be  transmitted  together.  This  phenome- 
non of  coupling  and  repulsion  is  not  yet  understood,  and  if  it  appears 
in  apples  will  tend  to  complicate  breeding  processes.  Then,  too, 
the  bringing  together  of  complementary  factors,  which  somehow 
in  the  past  breeding  of  the  fruit  had  become  separated,  may  result 
in  reversions  and  thus  produce  unexpected  characters. 

A  breeder  cannot  obtain  wholly  new  characters  in  apples  by 
making  Mendelian  combinations  ;  nor  can  he  augment  existing 
characters,  with  the  possible  exception  of  size  and  vigor,  by  crossing. 

To  perpetuate  all  the  many  characters  of  a  species  it  is  necessary 
to  work  with  large  numbers  of  plants,  which  in  the  case  of  apples 
is  difficult  and  time-consuming.  It  is  probable  that  disappointments 
will  most  often  come  from  the  attempt  to  perpetuate  variations 
which  are  fluctuations  dependent  upon  environment  and  not  upon 
the  constitution  of  the  gametes. 

There  is  likely  to  be  some  confusion,  at  least  until  we  have  more 
knowledge  on  the  subject,  between  what  are  known  as  "  simple 
Mendelian  characters  "  and  "  blending  characters,"  or  those  which 
may  be  complex  in  composition,  in  which  the  offspring  are  seem- 
ingly intermediate  between  the  parents. 

Bud-selection.2  It  is  held  by  many  orchardists  and  experimenters 
that  such  qualities  as  productiveness,  vigor,  and  hardiness  can  be 
reproduced  by  taking  scions,  or  buds,  from  the  plants  possessing 

1  The  intermediate  generation. 

2  After  Professor  U.  P.  Iledrick,  Geneva  Experiment  Station. 


426  THE  APPLE 

these  qualities  ;  but  a  study  of  the  varieties  of  apples  now  grown 
gives  no  evidence  that  any  one  of  them  has  come  into  existence  by 
continuous  selection  or  that  any  variety  has  improved  or  degenerated 
through  the  cumulative  action  of  natural  or  artificial  selection.  No 
precise  experimental  evidence  has  been  offered  to  prove  that  varie- 
ties of  fruit  can  be  changed  in  the  least  by  continuous  bud-selection. 
Scientific  research  seems  wholly  to  disprove  of  the  theory  of  the 
transmission  of  acquired  characters,  and  of  continuous  selection  as 
a  process  for  improving  or  changing  plants  grown  from  seeds. 

The  differences  to  be  found  in  all  varieties  of  the  apple  are  due 
to  changing  environment  —  if  we  except  the  rare  bud-mutations, 
the  causes  of  which  are  not  known.  Environmental  changes  pro- 
duce manifold  modifications  in  many  of  the  characters  of  individual 
apple  trees,  but  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  such  changes  have 
any  effect  on  varietal  characters.  These  variations  appear  when 
individuals  of  a  variety  have  different  environments  ;  with  a  return 
to  the  original  environment,  they  disappear.  A  Baldwin  taken  from 
New  York  to  Virginia  produces  an  apple  different  from  the  New 
York  Baldwin  ;  when  taken  to  Missouri  or  to  Oregon  the  results 
are  still  different.  If  trees  are  brought  back  from  these  states  to 
New  York,  they  again  become  New  York  Baldwins. 

Appearance  of  the  fruit.  In  connection  with  the  mutual  affinity 
of  varieties  which  are  selected  for  cross-pollination,  there  comes 
the  question  of  the  immediate  influence  of  pollen.  For  instance, 
if  Mcintosh  pollen  is  put  on  Ben  Davis  pistils,  will  it  impart  the 
Mcintosh  flavor,  color,  and  characteristic  shape  to  the  resulting 
fruit  ?  Of  course  the  characters  of  both  may  be  united  in  the 
seeds,  and  the  trees  which  come  from  these  seeds  may  be  expected 
to  be  intermediate,  but  is  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  ever  changed  by 
foreign  pollen  ? 

The  increase  in  size  which  often  follows  crossing  cannot  be  called 
a  true  immediate  influence,  for  the  foreign  pollen  generally  stim- 
ulates the  fruit  to  a  better  growth  because  it  is  more  acceptable 
to  the  pistils,  not  because  it  carries  over  the  size-character  of  the 
variety  from  which  it  came.  Hyslop  Crab  pistils,  when  fertilized 
with  pollen  from  the  large  Tompkins  King,  grew  into  fruits  of  the 
usual  crab  size.  An  immediate  influence  in  size  may  be  possible, 
for  the  size  of  the  fruit  is  nearly  as  constant  a  varietal  character  as 


BREEDING  427 

is  the  shape  ;  but  most  of  the  increased  size  in  crosses  of  orchard 
fruits  probably  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  pollen  is  acceptable. 

Setting  aside  the  consideration  of  size  resulting  from  crossing, 
we  still  wish  to  know  whether  changes  in  shape,  color,  quality, 
and  season  of  ripening  of  the  fruit  will  result  from  crossing  by 
pollen.  A  few  instances  of  such  changes  have  been  noticed  in  the 
case  of  some  plants  in  which  the  seed  is  the  principal  part  of  the 
fruit ;  for  example,  corn,  peas,  and  beans.  With  fruits  in  which 
the  seed  is  surrounded  by  a  fleshy  pulp,  as  in  the  apple,  it  is  still 
a  matter  of  dispute  whether  the  pulp  is  at  all  changed.  Most  men 
have  formed  their  theories  about  the  immediate  influence  of  pollen 
from  observation  rather  than  from  experimentation.  It  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  "  sweet  and  sour  "  apples  are  due  to  cross- 
pollination,  nor  that  the  russet  on  Greening  apples  that  grew  on  the 
side  of  the  tree  next  a  Roxbury  was  produced  by  the  influence  of 
the  Roxbury  pollen. 

Most  of  the  changes  in  fruit  which  are  attributed  to  the  influence 
of  cross-pollination  are  due  to  variation.  Every  bud  on  a  tree  is 
different  in  some  way  from  ever)'  other  bud  on  that  tree,  and 
may  develop  unusual  characters  according  to  the  conditions  under 
which  it  grows. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
EXHIBITS,   SCORING,  JUDGING,  DESCRIBING 

Exhibits.  The  educational  value  of  national,  state,  and  county 
fairs  to  fruit-growers  has  sometimes  been  overlooked.  Whether 
the  grower  exhibits  the  product  of  his  orchard  at  these  fairs  or 
at  those  held  by  horticultural  societies,  granges,  and  similar  organi- 
zations, or  simply  attends  as  an  onlooker,  he  cannot  help  receiving 
much  benefit  from  them. 

The  advantages  of  fruit  exhibits  consist  in  informing  the  grower 
of  the  methods  and  results  obtained  by  other  orchardists,  and  in 
giving  him  an  opportunity  to  meet  and  talk  with  men  who  have 
been  more  successful  than  he.  Then,  too,  the  consumer  is  educated 
as  to  the  varieties  and  their  uses  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  him  a 
more  intelligent  purchaser.  It  is  unfortunate,  however,  that  some 
of  the  effects  of  exhibiting  at  fairs  and  meetings  have  proved  dis- 
couraging to  the  grower.  If  he  is  a  beginner,  there  is  danger  that 
he  will  feel  incapable  of  ever  producing  such  results  as  he  sees  on 
all  sides  of  him.  Or  perhaps  a  grower  has  been  induced  to  exhibit 
his  fruit  and  through  a  lack  of  fairness  or  an  error  in  judgment  has 
lost  a  prize  that  seemed  justly  his.  Such  occurrences  are  apt  to 
prevent  the  diffident  grower  from  getting  all  the  help  possible  out 
of  displaying  his  product.  In  addition  to  these  discouragements, 
there  must  be  considered  the  large  amount  of  disagreeable  work 
that  an  exhibit  involves.  Often  the  time  spent  seems  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  good  accomplished. 

Preparing  fruit  for  exhibition.  No  definite  rules  can  be  laid 
down  for  the  preparation  of  apples  for  exhibition.  Some  growers 
simply  select  their  best  fruit  and  give  no  special  thought  to  it 
except  to  exercise  care  in  handling.  Others  not  only  select  the 
best  fruit,  but  coat  it  with  such  preparations  as  beeswax,  shellac, 
etc.,  which  have  a  tendency  to  keep  the  fruit  in  good  condition 
for  a  long  period.  Some  fairs,  however,  do  not  permit  the  use 
of  these  preparations. 

428 


EXHIBITS,  SCORING,  JUDGING,  DESCRIBING       429 

What  fruit  to  show.  Only  the  very  best  fruit  should  be  taken 
to  a  fair  or  placed  on  exhibition.  No  insect-infested  or  diseased 
specimens  should  be  considered.  Apples  should  be  true  to  type  as 
to  shape,  size,  color  markings,  calyx,  stem,  bloom,  and  so  on,  all 
the  specimens  resembling  each  other  closely  in  these  characteristics. 
A  plate  of  five  apples  that  are  alike  in  every  particular  will  be 
most  satisfactory. 

How  to  show  fruit.  If  the  apples  are  to  be  placed  in  plates  of  five 
specimens  each,  see  that  the  plates  are  clean.  A  dark-green  paper 
mat  in  the  plate  will  set  off  yellow  or  red  varieties,  while  a  fairly 
deep-red  paper  mat  will  tend  to  improve  the  looks  of  green  fruit. 
If  these  mats  are  not  allowed,  then  see  that  the  plate  is  a  good, 
new,  white  one.  Place  the  apples  stems  up,  four  on  the  plate  and 
one  on  top  of  the  four. 

If  barrel  or  box  packing  is  shown,  be  careful  to  have  each  apple 
in  its  proper  place  and  the  barrel  or  box  new  and  fresh  looking. 
A  white  paper-lace  collar  or  strip  will  add  much  to  the  attractive- 
ness of  the  packed  fruit. 

Apple  prize  list  of  the  New  York  State  Fair.  A  list  of  the 
various  apples  and  prizes  given  in  one  of  the  large  Eastern  fairs 
will  serve  to  illustrate  the  interest  shown  in  apples  as  a  whole  and 
certain  varieties  in  particular. 

COLLECTION  EXHIBITS 

For  the  largest  and  best  collection  of  fruits  grown  in  any  county  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  collected  and  exhibited  by  any  county  organization :  #250.00, 
#200.00,  #1  50.00. 

For  the  largest  and  best  collection  of  fruits  grown  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  collected  and  exhibited  by  any  subordinate  grange  in  the  state  :  $1 50.00, 
$100.00,  #75.00. 

COMMERCIAL  EXHIBITS 

Apples 

Best  display  of  three  packed  barrels,  not 

less  than  three  varieties $75.00  $50.00  $25.00 

Best-packed  barrel  of  Baldwins      .     .     .  25.00  15.00  10.00 

Best-packed  barrel  of  Greenings  .  .  .  25.00  15.00  10.00 
Best-packed  barrel  of  Kings  or  Twenty 

Ounce 25.00  15.00  10.00 


$3°-0° 

$20.00 

7.50 

5.00 

7.50 

5.00 

7.50 

5.00 

430  THE  APPLE 

APPLES  (Continued) 

Best  display  of  three  packed  boxes,  not 

less  than  three  varieties #50.00 

Best-packed  box  of  Baldwins     .     .     .     .  15.00 

Best-packed  box  of  Kings 1  5.00 

Best-packed  box  of  Spitzenbergs    ...  1  5.00 


BOYS'  APPLE-PACKING  CONTEST 

Best-packed  standard  box,  $25.00,  $15.00,  $ro.oo. 

Contestants  to  furnish  apples.   The  Commission  will  furnish  standard  boxes. 

The  contest  will  take  place  in  the  fruit  department  on at  1  o  o'clock. 

Each  contestant  will  be  allowed  twenty  minutes.  Quality  of  fruit,  as  well  as 
pack,  will  be  considered. 

SPECIAL  AMATEUR  COLLECTION 

For  the  best  arranged  and  most  extensive,  perfect,  and  varied  exhibit 
of  orchard  products  (fresh  fruits)  grown  by  any  amateur  exhibitor,  $30.00, 
$20.00,   $IO.OO. 

(This  is  a  premium  offered  to  encourage  the  exhibition  of  a  "  fruit  farm  " 
collection.  It  includes  apples,  pears,  cherries,  peaches,  grapes,  and  all  other 
fruits.) 

BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  COLLECTION 

For  the  best-arranged  and  most  extensive,  perfect,  and  varied  display  of 
orchard  products  (fresh  fruits)  collected  and  exhibited  by  any  boys'  and  girls' 
club  or  rural  school,  $20.00,  $10.00,  $5.00. 

For  the  best  display  of  fruit  collected  and  exhibited  by  any  boy  or  girl, 

$10.00,  $5.00,  $2.50. 

APPLES 

Largest  and  best  collection  of  5  specimens  of  each  variety  (no  duplicates), 
$50.00,  $25.00,  $12.50. 

Collection  of  10  varieties,  5  specimens  of  each,  $30.00,  $1  5.00,  $7.50. 
Collection  of  5  varieties,  5  specimens  of  each,  $15.00,  $7.50,  $3.75. 


OPEN  TO  THE  WORLD 

Collection  of  10  varieties,  5  specimens  of  each,  $20.00,  $10.00,  $5.00. 
Collection  of  5  varieties,  5  specimens  of  each,  $15.00,  $7.50,  $3.75. 


43i 


432 


THE  APPLE 


FRUITS  — SINGLE  PLATES 

Apples 

(Five  specimens  of  each) 

Alexander $15.00 

Baldwin 50.00 

Banana 2.00 

Ben  Davis 5.00 

Benoni 2.00 

Bietigheimer 2.00 

Bismark 2.00 

Black  Gilliflower 2.00 

Boiken 2.00 

Bough 2.00 

Chenango 2.00 

Cooper  Market 2.00 

Delicious 2.00 

Detroit  Red 2.00 

Early  Strawberry 2.00 

Esopus 10.00 

Fall  Pippin 5.00 

Fallawater 2.00 

Fameuse 10.00 

Fanny 2.00 

Gano 2.00 

Garden  Royal 2.00 

Golden  Russet 2.00 

Golden  Sweet 2.00 

Gravenstein 5.00 

Grimes 2.00 

Hubbardston 10.00 

Jonathan 5.00 

Lady 2.00 

Lady  Sweet 2.00 

Late  Strawberry 2.00 

Lowell  (Greasy  Pippin)  ....  2.00 

Mcintosh 15.00 

Maiden  Blush 5.00 

Mother 2.00 

Northern  Spy 20.00 

Northwestern 2.00 

Oldenburg  (Duchess)      ....  5.00 

Opalescent 2.00 

Porter 2.00 


55.00  $2 

50 

IO.OO    5 

OO 

I. OO 

50 

I  .OO 

50 

I  .OO 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

50 

1 .00 

50 

1 .00 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

5° 

1.00 

50 

r  .00 

50 

1 .00 

50 

1.00 

5° 

5.00   2 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

5° 

5.00   2 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

5° 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

50 

5.OO    2 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

50 

1 .00 

50 

1.00 

50 

]  .00 

5° 

5.OO    2 

50 

1 .00 

50 

1.00 

5° 

10.00   5 

OO 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

50 

1.00 

5° 

EXHIBITS,  SCORING,  JUDGING,  DESCRIBING       433 


Apples  (Continued) 


Primate 

Pumpkin  Sweet  (Pound  Sweet)    . 

Red  Astrachan 

Red  Canada     

Rhode  Island  Greening      .     .     . 

Rome  Beauty 

Roxbury 

Saint  Lawrence 

Smokehouse 

Stark      

Stayman  Winesap 

Stump 

Sutton 

Swaar 

Sweet  Winesap  (Hendrick) 

Tolman 

Tompkins  King 

Twenty  Ounce 

Wagener 

Washington  Strawberry      .     .     . 

Wealthy 

Westfield  (Seek-no-further)      .     . 
Williams  (Williams  Favorite)  .      . 

Winesap 

Wolf  River 

Yellow  Bellflower 

Yellow  Newtown 

Yellow  Transparent 

York  Imperial 


$2.00 

10.00 

2.00 

10.00 

50.00 

10.00 

10.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

20.00 

15.00 

5.00 

2.00 

15.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

5.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.00 


$1.00 
5.00 
1 .00 
5.00 

10.00 
5.00 
5.00 
1. 00 
1. 00 


1. 00 

1. 00 
1. 00 
1. 00 
1. 00 
10.00 
5.00 
1. 00 
1 .00 
5.00 
1 .00 
1. 00 
1. 00 
1. 00 
i. 00 
1. 00 
1. 00 
1. 00 


$-5° 
2.50 

5° 
5° 
00 

5° 

5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
50 
5° 
5° 
50 
5° 
00 

5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
5° 
50 


Scoring.  As  already  pointed  out,  we  need  a  better  understand- 
ing of  the  growing,  breeding,  and  marketing  of  fruit,  but  we  also 
need  to  study  more  the  minute  characters  of  each  fruit.  Such  a 
minute  study  is  called  systematic  pomology.  When  we  come  to  be 
more  critical  with  regard  to  the  fine  points  of  differences  between 
one  variety  and  another  or  between  two  samples  of  the  same  variety, 
we  realize  the  need  of  some  reliable  method  of  comparison.  In 
this  study  much  may  be  learned  from  the  best  breeders  of  live 
stock.  Seldom  do  competent  judges  decide  offhand  between  the 
merits  of  two  animals.  They  submit  each  animal  to  the  score- 
card  test. 


434  THE  APPLE 

A  score  card  for  fruit  testing  is  devised  to  give  the  different 
characters  of  the  fruit  under  examination  their  correct  relative 
values.  It  requires  long  experience  to  determine  what  these  rela- 
tive values  should  be,  and  in  the  end  an  absolute  agreement  be- 
tween experts  cannot  be  reached.  Nevertheless,  a  great  deal  can 
be  done,  and  disagreements  are  not  in  most  cases  so  serious  as  to 
discredit  the  system.  What  we  need  is  more  practical  experience 
in  the  use  of  the  score  card. 

Score  cards.  A  very  good  general  score  card  has  been  adopted 
by  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture.  This,  however, 
is  used  for  judging  all  kinds  of  fruit. 

MASSACHUSETTS  SCORE  CARD 
All  Fruit 

Number  of  „ 

T1  Score 

Points 

Quality 20 

Form 15 

Color 15 

Size 10 

Uniformity  in  size 20 

Freedom  from  imperfections       .      .  20 

Perfection 100 

As  we  become  more  and  more  intensive  in  our  methods,  we 
shall  demand  a  card  that  gives  more  emphasis  to  the  one  fruit  — 
apples.  The  Ontario  Fruit-Growers  have  designed  a  very  good 
score  card  for  apples : 

ONTARIO  SCORE  CARD 

Apples 

Value  of 

Points 

Form 10 

Size 10 

Color 10 

Freedom  from  blemishes  ....  20 

Uniformity 20 

Quality 30 

Perfection 100 


Score 


EXHIBITS,  SCORING,  JUDGING,  DESCRIBING       435 

Professor  F.  A.  Waugh  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College 
has  a  personal  score  card  of  some  merit : 

SCORE  CARD   FOR  APPLES 

Number  of  ~ 

Si  ore 
Points 

Form 15 

Size 10 

Color 20 

Uniformity 10 

Quality 15 

Freedom  from  blemishes  ....  20 

Total 100 


Variety 

Grown  by 

Scored  by Date 

Another  scale  of  points  used  in  some  sections  by  old  experi- 
enced men  and  easily  remembered  is  as  follows  : 

SCORE  CARD   FOR  APPLES 

Number  ok 

Points 

Form 5 

The  specimens  should  have  the  normal  character  of 
the  variety,  and  should  be  nearly  uniform 

Color 5 

Should  be  bright,  clear,  and  clean,  and  typical  of  the 
variety 

Size 5 

Good  size  is  a  sign  of  high  cultivation 

Freedom  from  imperfections 10 

Should  not  show  wormholes,  spots,  bruises,  or  blem- 
ishes ;  the  stem  should  be  intact,  and  the  bloom 
undisturbed 

Total  points 25 

A  perfect  score  card  would  require  even  greater  nicety  than 
has  yet  been  suggested.  In  a  perfectly  ideal  method  of  judging  it 
would  not  be  sufficient  to  have  a  separate  score  card  for  apples, 
peaches,  plums,  etc. ;  there  would  have  to  be  several  different  cards 
for  apples,  each  variety  requiring  a  card  of  its  own.    The  qualities 


436  THE  APPLE 

which  constitute  a  perfect  Ben  Davis  are  not  the  same  which  make 
a  perfect  Williams  Favorite.  Mann  is  notable  for  its  keeping  quality, 
and  two  samples  of  this  variety  in  competition  would  be  judged 
chiefly  on  that  point.  Maiden  Blush  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty, 
and  two  competing  samples  would  be  judged  chiefly  on  this  quality. 
Mother  is  cultivated  principally  on  account  of  its  high  flavor,  and 
with  this  variety  all  other  considerations  ought  to  be  secondary. 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  MANN 

Number  of 
Points 

Form 10 

Size 10 

Color 5 

Freedom  from  blemishes  .                10 

Uniformity 15 

Keeping  quality 50 

SCORE  CARD   FOR  MAIDEN  BLUSH 

Number  of 
Points 

Form 10 

Size 10 

Color  or  beauty 40 

Freedom  from  blemishes 20 

Uniformity 10 

Quality 10 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  MOTHER 

Number  of 
Points 

Form .....10 

Size 5 

Color 15 

Freedom  from  blemishes 10 

Uniformity 10 

Quality  of  flavor 50 

There  ought  to  be  a  score  card  for  cold-storage  varieties,  another 
for  summer-market  varieties,  and  still  another  for  home-use  varie- 
ties. It  is  evident  that  when  a  variety  is  intended  for  cold  storage 
it  must  be  judged  on  a  different  basis  from  that  used  when  it  is 
to  be  sold  for  immediate  table  use. 


EXHIBITS,  SCORING,  JUDGING,  DESCRIBING       437 

Essentials  for  judging.  Each  judge  should  have  a  good  knowl- 
edge of  the  varieties  of  apples,  especially  of  the  characteristics 
of  each  variety,  such  as  its  shape,  size,  color,  and  quality.  Often 
the  apples  entered  in  competition  are  not  classed  properly,  there- 
fore experience  in  systematic  pomology  is  quite  essential  for 
competent  judging.  In  judging,  each  entry  should  be  closely 
inspected  and  the  poorest  eliminated.  Later  the  score  cards 
should  be  used  for  the  two  or  three  leading  plates  or  specimens. 
They  may  also  serve  as  a  record  of  the  decision  which  can  be 
easily  referred  to,  if  necessary. 

Describing  fruit.  In  order  to  classify  specimens  properly  they 
must  be  fully  described.  The  description  may  then  be  compared 
with  authoritative  books  and  the  variety  established  in  that  way.  A 
farmer  or  grower  who  had  an  unknown  variety  could  readily  make 
out  a  sheet  such  as  is  used  by  Cornell  University  and  forward  it 
to  his  state  experiment  station,  where  comparisons  could  be  made, 
and  if  the  description  was  accurately  given  the  variety  could 
probably  be  found  and  named. 

A  good  form  of  description  is  used  by  the  Massachusetts  Agricul- 
tural College  at  Amherst  and  another  by  the  pomological  depart- 
ment of  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell. 

FRUIT  DESCRIPTIVE  BLANK* 

Apple 


Fruit,  form 

size 

cavity 

stem 

'  basin 

calyx 

color 

dots 

bloom 

skin 

flesh 

core 

flavor 

quality 

season 

Tree 

General  Notes 

Specimens  received  from 

described  by 

date 

1  Used  by  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 


438 


THE  APPLE 


I  )IAGRAM 


FRUIT  DESCRIPTIVE   BLANK' 
Apple 
Name 


Synonyms 


Size 


Uniformity 


Form 


Skin,  texture 


surface 


color 


dots 


bloom 


Cavity 

,  form 

markings 

Stem, 

Basin, 

form 

markings 

Calyx, 

tube 

lobes 

Flesh, 

color 

texture 

flavor 

quality 

Core, 

position 

lines 

seeds 

Season 

use 

General  Notes 

Specimens  received  from 

date 

I  )ES('R1 

BED    BY 

Used  by  Cornell  University. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

COLOR 

Many  factors  seem  to  have  some  influence  on  the  increase  or 
decrease  in  the  amount  of  color  in  different  varieties  of  apples. 
Experimental  work  has  been  carried  on  to  determine  just  how- 
much  influence  some  of  these  factors  have. 

Influence  of  fertilizers.  Many  prominent  fruit-growers  and  fer- 
tilizer experts  have  maintained  that  potash  is  the  element  needed 
by  the  trees  to  produce  more  color.  In  tests  carried  on  for  several 
years  by  the  Geneva  Experiment  Station  an  attempt  was  made  to 
find  out  the  effect  of  potash  in  the  form  of  wood  ashes  and  also 
whether  phosphoric  acid  has  a  decidedly  beneficial  effect  on  the 
color  of  apples.  Since  the  experiments  of  the  Station  in  this 
matter  are  of  some  general  interest,  they  are  described  below. 

Experiments  with  wood  ashes.  Wood  ashes  were  applied  to 
the  four  treated  plats  at  the  rate  of  ioo  pounds  per  tree  annually, 
with  the  exception  of  two  years,  1901  and  1902,  when  ^  the  appli- 
cations were  omitted.  As  there  are  48  trees  per  acre,  4800  pounds 
were  applied  per  acre.  The  ashes  were  thoroughly  mixed,  weighed 
separately  for  each  tree,  and  applied  broadcast  to  a  line  midway 
between  adjacent  rows.  Applications  were  made  in  the  spring 
and  were  well  worked  into  the  ground.  No  other  fertilizer  was 
applied  to  any  part  of  the  orchard  during  the  first  five  years  of 
the  experiment.    The  following  cover  crops  were  plowed  under  : 


1893, 

oats  and  peas 

1S99, 

crimson  clover 

1894. 

crop  not  stated 

1 900, 

rye 

1895, 

crop  not  stated 

1901. 

oats 

1896, 

sweet  clover 

1902, 

barley 

1897, 

mammoth  clover 

I9°3, 

crimson  clover 

898, 

crimson  clover 

1904, 

mammoth  clover 

Acid  phosphate  was  added  to  the  treated  plats  during  the  last 
seven  years  of  the  experiment. 

439 


440 


THE  APPLE 


Analyses  were  made  of  each  application  of  ashes  to  determine 
the  percentage  of  potash,  with  the  following  results : 


Year 

Per  cent 

Year 

Per  cent 

4-13 
3-89 
57' 
5-71 
1.38 
4.01 

Seventh    

Eighth 

Ninth 

Tenth 

Eleventh  

Twelfth 

3-24 
4-39 

Second    

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth    

5.06 
479 

Since  100  pounds  of  ashes  were  applied  to  each  tree  annually, 
these  figures  show  the  number  of  pounds  of  actual  potash  per  tree 
each  season.  Thus,  during  the  twelve  years  42.31  pounds  were 
applied  per  tree  and  2031  pounds  per  acre  —  an  average  of  169 
pounds  per  acre  for  the  twelve  years.  The  amount  of  potash 
applied  was  much  greater  than  is  generally  used  in  orchard  prac- 
tice, from  50  to  100  pounds  per  acre  for  apples  being  the  common 
allowance. 

Unfortunately  the  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  and  lime  in  the 
ashes  used  were  not  determined,  but  since  the  amount  of  phos- 
phoric acid  found  in  ashes  varies  from  1  to  2  per  cent,  1 1  per  cent 
being  a  fair  average,  we  can  assume  that  1 1  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid  were  applied  per  tree  each  year,  or  72  pounds  per  acre.  The 
average  analysis  of  commercial  wood  ashes  shows  them  to  contain 
32  per  cent  of  lime,  so  that  there  was  probably  added  about 
32  pounds  of  lime  per  tree  annually,  or  1536  pounds  per  acre. 
These  amounts  are  in  excess  of  those  commonly  thought  to  be 
necessary  per  acre  for  apples,  and  therefore  this  experiment  has 
to  do  with  phosphoric  acid  and  lime  as  well  as  potash.  It  is  true 
that  phosphoric  acid  in  ashes  becomes  available  slowly,  but  its 
effects  should  be  seen  in  twelve  years,  especially  since  the  culti- 
vation and  the  plowing  under  of  cover  crops  were  favorable  for 
its  becoming  available. 

It  is  held  by  some  that  the  apple  does  best  on  a  slightly  acid 
soil,  and  it  may  be  claimed  that  in  this  experiment  lime  has  hin- 
dered the  action  of  the  other  ingredients.  However,  no  data 
could  be  found  to  show  that  an  alkaline  condition  of  the  soil 
brought  about  by  lime  hinders  any  specific  function  of  potash  or 


COLOR  441 

phosphoric  acid  in  growing  apple  trees,  nor  that  the  lime  accom- 
paniment could  in  any  way  nullify  or  obscure  the  action  of  these 
nutrients  as  to  the  yield  or  color  of  apples.  In  this  connection  it 
is  worth  noting  that  some  of  the  best  apple  regions  in  the  United 
States  have  limestone  soils.  Many  fruit-growers  use  lime  in  mod- 
erate quantities  as  a  fertilizer  for  apples.  From  these  consider- 
ations it  may  be  assumed  that  lime  in  the  quantities  added  did 
not  have  a  deleterious  effect  on  the  yield  or  color  of  the  apple 
in  this  experiment ;  on  the  contrary  it  might  be  suspected  that 
the  lime  was  in  part  responsible  for  such  beneficial  effects  as 
were  noted. 

While  no  tests  to  determine  the  acidity  of  the  soil  were  made, 
it  may  be  inferred,  since  all  leguminous  cover  crops  grew  readily 
in  the  untreated  plats,  that  the  soil  of  the  orchard  is  not  strongly 
acid,  for  the  clovers  in  particular  do  not  thrive  in  an  acid  soil. 

Acid  phosphate  was  applied  to  the  treated  plats  at  the  rate  of 
8.1  pounds  per  tree  during  the  last  seven  years  of  the  experiment. 
With  48  trees  per  acre  there  were,  therefore,  408  pounds  of  the 
acid  phosphate  applied  to  each  acre.  The  fertilizer  was  guaranteed 
to  contain  14  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  (analysis  proved  it  to 
contain  approximately  that  much),  and  the  amount  of  available 
phosphoric  acid  per  tree  each  season  was  1.19  pounds,  or  8.33 
pounds  per  tree  in  the  seven  years.  This  is  equivalent  to  399.84 
pounds  per  acre,  an  average  of  57  pounds  per  acre  annually.  The 
amount  of  phosphoric  acid  recommended  for  apples  ranges  from 
30  to  60  pounds  per  acre.  Adding  to  the  above  amount  the  phos- 
phoric acid  to  be  found  in  the  wood  ashes,  approximately  72  pounds 
per  acre,  the  total  quantity  is  about  1 29  pounds  per  acre  —  a  great 
abundance. 

In  the  Station  orchard  apples  did  not  color  well,  and  it  was 
thought  that  if  the  addition  of  these  fertilizers  would  heighten 
color,  their  use  might  be  desirable,  even  though  there  was  no 
great  gain  in  yield.  As  a  rule  apples  take  on  their  brightest  colors 
on  sandy  soils,  while  on  clay  they  run  to  duller  hues.  Because 
of  their  influence  on  color,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are  thought 
to  be  especially  valuable  on  clay  soils.  The  clay  soil  of  the  Station 
orchard  was  therefore  a  very  favorable  one  on  which  to  try  these 
substances  to  influence  color. 


442  THE  APPLE 

The  records  for  the  twelve  years  were  as  follows  : 

iSgj.  Slight  improvement  was  noted  in  the  color  of  all  the  varieties  on 
the  treated  sections.  Even  the  Roxbury  was  smoother  and  more  highly  colored 
on  the  treated  than  on  the  untreated  section. 

1894.  Fall  Pippins  were  smoother  and  fairer  on  the  treated  plats.  Bald- 
wins showed  but  little  difference  and  that  in  favor  of  the  untreated  trees. 
Rhode  Island  Greenings  had  a  riper  appearance,  more  yellow,  and  a  tinge 
of  red  on  the  treated  plats.  No  difference  discernible  with  the  Northern  Spy 
and  the  Roxbury.    The  results  for  this  year  were  not  at  all  uniform. 

1S95.  Effects  were  not  more  noticeable  in  this  season  than  in  the  previous 
one,  Rhode  Island  Greenings  and  Northern  Spies  showing  the  best  color  in 
the  untreated  plats,  and  Baldwins  and  Roxburys  the  highest  color  in  the 
treated  plats.    No  difference  was  noted  between  the  plats  of  Fall  Pippins. 

i8q6.    Colors  developed  as  well  on  the  untreated  plats  as  on  the  treated. 

i8gy.  The  crop  was  comparatively  small  and  poorly  colored  on  both  the 
treated  and  the  untreated  plats,  without  noticeable  difference. 

1898.  Effects  were  not  at  all  uniform,  the  product  of  the  trees  in  the 
same  plats  differing  as  much  as  the  products  from  the  different  plats. 

i8qq.  Slight  improvement  was  shown  in  the  color  of  Baldwins  and  North- 
ern Spies  (the  red  sorts),  but  no  difference  in  Rhode  Island  Greenings,  Fall 
Pippins,  and  Roxburys  (the  green  varieties). 

/goo.    No  differences  could  be  noted. 

igoi.  A  small  crop  of  undersized  fruit,  all  poorly  colored  and  showing  no 
difference  in  favor  of  either  set  of  plats. 

IQ02.  All  the  treated  plats  showed  more  brilliant  colors,  though  the  differ- 
ences could  scarcely  be  noted  in  the  green  varieties. 

1903.  No  crop. 

1904.  The  differences  were  slight  and  variable  and  not  to  be  counted  in 
favor  of  either  the  treated  or  the  untreated  trees. 

Taken  as  a  whole  the  results  were  disappointing.  They  lacked 
uniformity,  and  were  not  decided  enough  in  a  sufficient  number 
of  the  twelve  seasons  to  enable  the  Geneva  Station  to  state  that 
the  addition  of  the  substances  applied  heightened  the  color  of 
apples  under  the  conditions  of  this  experiment.  Not  only  did  the 
results  vary  from  season  to  season,  but  varieties  varied  greatly  in 
the  same  season,  and  in  some  cases  the  same  variety  colored 
differently  in  plats  receiving  the  same  treatment.  When  we  con- 
sider the  number  of  factors  which  are  known  to  influence  color 
in  fruit  we  cannot  assume  with  any  degree  of  certainty  that  the 
results  described  above  show  that  the  addition  of  these  fertilizers 
changed  the  color  of  the  fruit  in  any  season.    Since  exposure  to 


COLOR  443 

light,  the  intensity  of  the  light,  the  amount  of  foliage  on  the  tree, 
the  healthiness  of  the  foliage,  the  amount  of  stored  food  in  the 
plant,  the  soil  heat,  the  texture  of  the  soil,  all  have  an  influence 
on  the  color  of  the  fruit,  it  is  clear  that  it  is  an  intricate  task, 
and  an  almost  impossible  one,  to  determine  in  an  experiment  like 
this  what  were  the  most  potent  factors. 

A  comparison  of  the  color  data  with  meteorological  data  for 
the  twelve-year  period  shows  that  the  treatment  seemed  to  have 
an  influence  in  coloring  fruit  only  in  those  years  when  the  apple 
did  not  develop  well,  as  in  1893  and  1902  ;  and  that  in  other  sea- 
sons, as  in  1896,  1900,  and  1904,  when  climatic  conditions  were 
favorable  to  the  development  of  fruit  and  foliage,  the  coloring  was 
as  nearly  perfect  on  the  untreated  as  on  the  treated  plats. 

Experiment  with  basic-slag  meal.  From  a  very  reliable  source 
we  have  an  interesting  account  of  an  increase  in  the  color  of 
apples  by  the  application  of  basic-slag  meal,  an  exclusively  phos- 
phatic  fertilizer.  About  20  pounds  of  the  slag  was  spread  around 
the  trees,  most  of  it  between  1  and  2  feet  beyond  the  spread  of 
the  branches.    This  was  thoroughly  worked  into  the  soil. 

The  fruit  set  was  light,  so  far  as  yield  is  concerned,  but  the 
increased  size  and  the  higher  color  of  the  fruit  on  the  trees  treated 
in  this  way  made  the  experiment  a  wise  and  profitable  one. 

Experiments  with  nitrogen.  From  experiments  carried  on  at 
the  Pennsylvania  State  College  it  has  been  found  that  nitrogen 
has  the  effect  of  reducing  the  color  of  apples. 

Influence  of  cultivation  on  color.  With  apples,  as  with  other 
crops,  probably  the  chief  function  of  cultural  methods  is  the  proper 
control  of  soil  moisture.  Other  functions,  such  as  promoting  nitri- 
fication and  killing  weeds,  are  important,  sometimes  more  so  than 
moisture  control,  but  the  latter  is  usually  the  chief  consideration. 
This  is  especially  true  of  fruit  trees,  the  moisture  demand  of  which 
is  large,  both  for  use  in  transpiration  and  as  a  constituent  of  the 
fruit  and  vegetative  parts.  Hence  a  shortage  in  water  supply  may 
occur  frequently  in  an  orchard,  at  least  for  limited  periods  during 
the  season.  This  to  a  great  extent  reduces  or  nullifies  the  effect 
of  all  other  operations  in  the  orchard. 

An  experiment  made  along  this  line  has  shown  that  in  an 
orchard  that  was  allowed  to  remain  in  sod,  the  color  of  the  apples 


444  THE  APPLE 

scored  an  average  of  85  per  cent  out  of  a  possible  100  per  cent.  In 
an  orchard  in  which  sod  mulch  was  used  the  color  averaged  about 
82.5  per  cent.  Clean-tillage  fruit  averaged  75^  per  cent,  and  or- 
chards treated  by  tillage  and  cover  crops  showed  about  75  per  cent. 

These  experiments  seem  to  bear  out  the  observations  of  practi- 
cal growers  that  there  is  an  increase  in  the  color  of  fruit  grown 
in  sod  orchards  and  a  decrease  as  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is 
intensified. 

Influence  of  light  on  color.  In  apples  there  are  but  two  colors 
to  be  considered  —  yellow  and  red.  Physiologically,  yellow  is  con- 
nected with  colored  bodies  in  the  superficial  layers  of  cells.  It 
develops  independently  of  light,  and  its  intensity  depends  merely 
upon  the  degree  of  maturity  or  ripeness.  Red,  however,  is  a  con- 
stituent of  the  cell  sap.  It  is  capable  of  being  influenced  by  a 
number  of  agencies,  and  its  intensity  depends  primarily  upon  the 
amount  of  light  received  during  the  later  stages  of  maturity. 

A  test  of  the  effect  of  light  upon  apples  after  they  were  picked 
was  made  by  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station.  In  this  test 
some  200  York  Imperial  apples  were  separated  into  four  lots  of 
equal  size,  each  lot  containing  approximately  the  same  amount  of 
color  at  the  beginning  of  the  test.  Two  of  these  lots  were  arranged 
to  test  the  effect  of  sunlight  and  two  the  effect  of  electric  light, 
one  of  the  lots  in  each  case  being  darkened  and  all  other  factors 
being  kept  essentially  uniform. 

The  results  of  the  test,  in  brief,  are  that  the  lot  exposed  to  sun- 
light increased  in  redness  by  about  35  per  cent,  while  in  no  other 
case  was  any  definite  increase  observable.  In  some  instances  an 
apparent  increase  in  the  brightness,  though  not  in  the  extent,  of 
the  redness  was  observed,  but  this  seemed  to  be  due  essentially 
to  the  coming  up  of  the  yellow  colors,  thus  increasing  the  contrast. 
This  test  shows  first  the  importance  of  sunlight,  especially  in  con- 
nection with  maturity,  and,  second,  that  color  is  apparently  inde- 
pendent of  anything  contributed  by  the  cell  sap,  at  least  after 
normal  size  is  reached. 

To  obtain  high  color,  however,  it  is  desirable  to  maintain  con- 
nection with  the  tree  as  long  as  possible  because  of  the  unfavor- 
able effects  upon  keeping  quality  that  result  from  any  considerable 
exposure  of  the  fruit  after  it  is  picked. 


COLOR  445 

The  chief  influence  on  color.  Apples  matured  on  the  tree  in  an 
abundance  of  sunlight  show  the  highest  color ;  therefore,  any- 
thing that  tends  to  hasten  maturity  or  to  increase  the  amount 
of  sunlight,  such  as  proper  pruning  of  the  branches,  thinning  of 
the  fruit,  and  selection  of  site,  will  promote  color,  while  factors 
tending  to  retard  the  one  or  decrease  the  other  will  lessen 
the  color. 

The  relation  of  this  fact  to  certain  others  is  interesting.  Manure 
and  nitrogen  applications,  heavy  soils,  and  excessive  cultivation, 
all  tend  to  decrease  color ;  while  light  soils,  sod  or  sod-mulch,  and 
possibly  phosphate  and  potash  applications  tend  to  improve  it. 
These  differences  are  all  readily  accounted  for  on  the  basis  of 
their  relation  to  maturity,  though  some  of  them  also  indirectly 
affect  the  amount  of  light.  The  first  group  of  factors  evidently 
tends  to  retard  maturity,  while  the  second  group  hastens  it.  We 
also  know  that  dense  tree  tops,  heavy  foliage,  and  early  picking 
of  fruit  give  us  reduced  color,  while  the  reverse  conditions 
favor  it.  These  effects  are  evidently  due  to  modifications  in  the 
amount  of  light,  and  in  one  case  also  to  the  different  degree 
of  maturity. 

Our  conclusions,  then,  are  that  the  yellow  colors  in  apples  are 
independent  of  light  and  of  nearly  all  other  environmental  condi- 
tions. The  red  colors,  however,  are  primarily  dependent  on  sun- 
light, and  especially  on  the  amount  received  during  the  later  stages 
of  maturity.  Maturity  in  sunlight  is  therefore  the  dominant  en- 
vironmental influence  in  the  production  of  color  in  apples.  Hence, 
anything  that  tends  to  hasten  maturity  or  to  increase  the  amount 
of  sunlight  received  will  favor  color,  while  the  reverse  conditions 
will  injure  it. 

Exposure  of  apples  to  sunlight  after  they  are  harvested  has  in- 
creased their  redness  by  35  per  cent,  while  those  kept  in  the  dark 
or  exposed  to  electric  light  showed  no  definite  increase. 

Effect  of  iron  on  color.  The  idea  that  iron  in  the  soil  or  appli- 
cations of  iron  have  some  definite  relation  to  color  in  apples  has 
long  existed.  In  the  experiments  that  have  been  conducted,  better 
coloring  was  reported  on  both  the  fruit  and  the  foliage  of  trees 
receiving  the  applications,  but  the  leaves  and  peelings  contained 
less  iron  than  those  of  the  checks. 


446  THE  APPLE 

Heredity  and  variation  as  affecting  color.  The  environmental 
factors  influencing  the  color  of  apples  have  been  discussed,  but 
other  influences  must  be  considered.  The  influence  of  internal 
factors  is  obvious  in  such  varieties  as  the  Yellow  Transparent,  Yellow 
Newtown,  and  Rhode  Island  Greening,  or  in  other  varieties,  as  the 
Jonathan,  Mcintosh,  and  Baldwin.  The  difference  in  color  in  these 
varieties  doubtless  comes  from  variations  in  the  seed.  There  is 
evidence,  however,  that  at  least  some  of  the  differences  are  due  to 


Fig.  190.    The  king  of  fruits 
What  is  more  inviting  or  more  pleasing  than  a  plate  of  extra-choice  apples  ? 

variations  in  buds  or  branches  —  even  on  the  same  tree.  This  is 
true  of  the  Banks  and  Collamer  apples,  which  have  been  devel- 
oped from  the  Gravenstein  and  Twenty  Ounce  varieties,  respec- 
tively, by  variations  in  single  branches  of  their  parent  trees.  The 
narrow  red  stripes  of  the  parent  apples  have  been  broadened  so  as 
to  cover  the  fruit  much  more  completely.  In  two  other  cases  these 
stripes  are  further  broadened  into  practically  solid-red  colors.  These 
are  the  Hitchings,  and  the  Red  Gravenstein  reported  by  Beach 
from  an  island  in  Puget  Sound.  The  origin  of  Gano  which  has 
been  obtained  from  the  Ben  Davis  may  also  be  a  case  emphasiz- 
ing the  particular  fruit. 


COLOR  447 

In  some  of  these  cases  the  color  is  also  heritable.  This  is  true 
of  the  Banks,  which  is  reported  to  have  been  widely  propagated 
in  Nova  Scotia,  and  to  have  come  satisfactorily  true  to  type  in  most 
cases.  The  genuine  Gano  is  known  to  be  practically  constant  in 
its  solid-red  colors,  at  least  within  its  proper  habitat.  The  rather 
striking  and  apparently  heritable  differences  in  color,  some  of 
which  have  certainly  originated  by  vegetative  variation,  seem  more 
nearly  to  prove  the  existence  of  genuine  bud-mutations  and  the 
possibility  of  their  utilization  in  apple  improvement  along  various 
lines  than  any  other  evidence  we  have. 

Conclusions.  A  study  of  the  subject  as  a  whole  leads  to  the 
following  general  conclusions  : 

Color  in  the  pome  fruits  is  not  influenced  directly  in  the 
immediate  cross. 

New  characters  cannot  be  added  by  the  pollen,  except  in  the 
seed  itself,  in  the  immediate  cross. 

The  manifestation  of  color  is  dependent  on  many  environmental 
factors. 

Color,  as  usually  found,  is  composed  of  a  number  of  unit 
characters. 

Somatic  segregation  may  occur,  and  by  this  means  the  several 
factors  may  appear  as  bands  more  or  less  parallel  or  a  band  of 
but  one  color  surrounded  by  the  normal  color. 

Similar  segregation  may  extend  to  any  group  of  unit  characters 
of  which  the  plant  is  composed. 

Segregation  may  extend  to  either  fruit  or  leaf  buds,  if  such 
variations  may  be  propagated  asexually. 

Red  in  apples  may  consist  of  either  a  single  character  or  a 
complex  unit  of  characters  —  at  least  three  reds  are  recognizable. 

Somatic  segregation  may  be  of  service  to  plant  breeders  as  indi- 
cating the  unit  characters  that  are  likely  to  exhibit  themselves  when 
a  plant  is  propagated  sexually. 

Segregation  generally  extends  to  the  flower  bud  only  in  apples, 
while  in  pears  the  shoot  is  frequently  affected. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

FRUIT-GROWING  IN  VARIOUS  SECTIONS  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA 

The  Piedmont  and  Blue  Ridge  regions.  The  Piedmont  and  Blue 
Ridge  regions  comprise  parts  of  the  following  states  :  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Ken- 
tucky. Until  ten  years  ago  practically  no  commercial  apple  pro- 
duction was  to  be  found  in  this  section.  Apples  were  raised  in 
some  abundance,  but  nearly  all  were  used  for  cider,  apple  juice,  or 
some  other  by-product.  Lately  the  development  of  this  region  has 
been  very  rapid,  probably  more  than  a  million  young  trees  being 
planted  in  the  last  few  years. 

According  to  available  figures  the  production  of  this  region  in 
191 1  amounted  to  5,400,000  barrels  —  about  15.1  per  cent  of  the 
total.  In  191 2  the  production  probably  exceeded  6,000,000  barrels. 
The  Virginias  alone,  in  1909,  produced  10,329,000  bushels  of 
apples  valued  at  $5,591,000.00.  This  gives  an  average  of  54  cents 
a  bushel,  and  compares  favorably  with  the  average  value  of  5  2  cents 
a  bushel  in  New  York  State,  50  cents  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
48  cents  in  Michigan. 

This  region  is  a  land  of  mountains,  valleys,  hills,  and  plateaus, 
and  has  been  found  to  be  a  natural  apple  belt.  The  soil  is  rich, 
and  largely  made  up  of  debris  of  the  peculiar  rotten-granite  rocks 
of  the  mountains  —  a  soil  very  deep  and  very  retentive  of  moisture. 
The  soil  types  are  numerous  and  variable.  In  Virginia  the  Bureau 
of  Soils  has  surveyed  two  areas,  the  largest  parts  of  which  have 
been  found  to  contain  the  best  possible  fruit-growing  soils.  The 
Cecil  series,  the  Porter  series,  and  the  Merrill  series  are  the  areas 
described  in  the  report  of  the  survey. 

In  the  elevated  sections  of  this  region  the  climate  is  cool,  with 
plenty  of  rain  and  sunshine,  and  the  growing  season  is  long.  Where 
the  land  is  level  or  slightly  rolling  the  orchards  are  usually  given 

448 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES        449 

thorough  cultivation  until  the  middle  or  last  of  July.  Crimson 
clover  or  covvpeas  are  sowed  for  a  cover  crop  at  this  time. 

In  the  mountain  orchards,  where  the  land  is  rough  and  irregular 
and  the  rows  are  not  straight,  cultivation  is  difficult  and  sometimes 
impossible.  Many  times,  even  when  cultivation  could  be  given,  it 
is  not  advisable  to  do  so  because  of  the  resulting  loss  by  erosion. 
Sometimes  the  odd  and  even  rows  are  given  culture  in  alternate 
years,  care  being  taken  to  cultivate  along  the  contour  lines. 
Mulches  are  used  where  cultivation  is  impracticable  or  impossible. 

The  young  orchards  are  headed  low,  from  2  to  3  feet  being 
the  average  height.  The  method  of  pruning  differs  from  that  in 
the  North  —  the  closed-center  or  central-leader  system  being  used 
almost  entirely  in  order  to  prevent  sunscald. 

Many  insects  and  diseases  are  found  in  this  region,  the  worst 
insect  being  the  round-headed  apple-tree  borer,  while  cedar  rust 
and  bitter  rot  seem  to  be  the  most  troublesome  diseases.  Spraying 
is  becoming  more  common,  and  power  sprayers  are  in  evidence 
where  the  size  of  the  orchard  warrants.  Low-power  outfits  of  the 
lightest  weight  are  used  on  the  hills. 

Some  of  the  most  modern  orchardists  use  commercial  fertilizer, 
while  others  do  not  regard  it  of  great  value. 

Cheap  labor  is  abundant.  The  mountain  valleys  are  well  sup- 
plied with  people  of  primitive  ways  of  living,  who  are  good,  willing 
workers,  easily  taught,  and  are  content  with  low  wages. 

The  box  is  not  common,  although  certain  growers  prefer  it 
to  other  packs.  The  barrel  is  the  most  common  carrier  for  the 
apples.  Transportation  facilities  are  very  good  in  this  region, 
some  parts  being  nearer  the  large  cities  of  the  East  than  western 
New  York,  while  small  markets,  such  as  mining  towns,  lumber 
camps,  and  small  manufacturing  centers,  are  near  at  hand.  For 
export  trade  the  region  is  very  well  situated,  being  near  important 
tidewater  ports. 

There  seem  to  be  ample  facilities  for  the  storage  of  the  best 
apples,  and  the  near-by  large  cities  offer  cold-storage  room.  The 
pressing  need  is  for  some  means  of  utilizing  profitably  the  drops 
and  bulk  fruit.  Very  few  evaporators  or  canning  factories  are  now 
available,  but  there  are  good  opportunities  for  investment  along 
these  two  lines. 


45°  THE  APPLE 

A  large  amount  of  Northern  capital  has  been  invested  in  the 
cheap  orchards  and  orchard  lands  of  this  territory.  Some  of  these 
newly  purchased  farms  have  set  out  between  2000  and  3000 
trees,  the  plan  being  to  carry  on  the  work  under  the  most  scien- 
tific methods.  Where  older  orchards  have  been  systematized,  the 
product  has  doubled  in  a  year. 

The  varieties  differ  from  those  of  the  North.  The  York  Im- 
perial with  its  characteristic  lopsided  and  irregular  form  is  the 
leading  variety.  It  is  very  productive,  well  colored,  and  in  good 
demand.  Its  irregularity  is  a  market  asset,  giving  even  the  most 
uninformed  person  a  sure  means  of  identifying  it.  The  Limber- 
twig  is  another  variety  of  importance  in  a  certain  part  of  this  region. 
It  has  a  good  reputation  as  a  hardy  variety  and  heavy  producer, 
and  yields  a  large  amount  of  juice  for  cider  and  applejack.  It  is 
a  fine,  medium-sized  apple,  with  a  rich-red  skin.  The  trees  are 
low-headed,  the  branches  often  touching  the  ground.  The  Ben 
Davis,  Arkansas,  Grimes,  Jonathan,  Northwestern,  Stayman  Wine- 
sap,  Winesap,  Yellow  Newtown,  and  Rome  Beauty  are  grown  suc- 
cessfully in  this  region.  Many  other  valuable  varieties  are  found 
in  the  older  orchards. 

The  Pacific  Northwest.  So  much  attention  has  been  attracted 
to  the  wonders  of  the  fruit  grown  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  that 
a  brief  description  of  the  limitation  and  desirable  characteristics 
may  be  of  interest.  This  district,  which  embraces  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington, and  lower  British  Columbia,  may  be  divided  into  three 
great  apple-producing  regions  :  the  Coast  Region,  which  is  west  of 
the  Cascade  Mountains  and  has  a  heavy  annual  rainfall  and  an 
even  temperature  throughout  the  year ;  the  Inland  Valleys,  east 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  which  has  an  altitude  of  from  300  to 
1000  feet  and  a  rainfall  of  from  4  to  10  inches,  so  that  irrigation 
is  usually  necessary  for  crop  production  ;  the  Inland  Uplands,  east 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  which  has  an  altitude  of  from  1000  to 
3000  feet  and  a  rainfall  of  from  12  to  25  inches,  and  is  not  irri- 
gated. These  sections  are  again  divided  into  countries,  such  as  the 
Palouse  country,  the  Big  Bend  country,  the  Puget  Sound  country, 
and  the  Hood  River  country.  A  "country"  is  a  district  having 
almost  uniform  climatic  and  soil  conditions.  Some  of  these  coun- 
tries are  very  large,  while  others  are  only  narrow  river  valleys. 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES        451 


The  main  characteristics  of  orchard  methods  in  these  various 
apple-producing  regions  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  : 

i.  Tillage.  In  the  Coast  Region,  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy 
and  the  soils  usually  rich  in  humus,  there  is  less  need  of  tillage  to 
conserve  moisture  than  in  the  drier  inland  sections.  However, 
even  under  these  conditions,  which  are  especially  favorable  for 
the  neglect  of  tillage,  it  is 
usually  found  that  tilled  or- 
chards are  far  more  profit- 
able than  sod  orchards, 
especially  when  the  latter 
are  pastured.  In  some 
sections  of  the  Coast  Re- 
gion, however,  there  is 
an  increasing  tendency  to 
adopt  the  mulching  sys- 
tem. It  is  believed  that 
this  will  become  a  stand- 
ard system  in  the  lowlands. 
Some  advocate  seeding  the 
orchard  to  clover,  which  is 
cut  two  or  three  years  be- 
fore the  sod  is  plowed  un- 
der, and  the  orchard  then 
tilled  one  or  two  seasons 
before  being  again  seeded 
to  clover.  There  are 
many  orchard  soils  in  the 
Coast  Region  which  need 
thorough  tillage  as  much 
as  any  in  the  East,  but  it 

seems  that  some  modification  of  the  mulching  system  will  often 
be  found  satisfactory  with  apples,  pears,  and  sweet  cherries. 

Almost  all  of  the  irrigated  orchards  in  the  inland  valleys  have 
clean  tillage.  In  the  early  clays  it  was  thought  that  tillage  could  be 
neglected  if  the  trees  were  irrigated  often  enough,  but  this  was 
soon  found  to  be  a  great  mistake.  There  is  a  growing  tendency 
to  reduce  the  number  of  irrigations  and  to  increase  the  number  of 


Fig.  191.    Eastern  results  with  Western  fruit 

A  magnificent  showing  of  Spitzenburg  apples  in 
New  York  State,  said  to  be  not  the  environment  for 
the  Spitzenburg.  Fruit  farm  of  Glenn  H .  Timplelougt, 

Sodus,  New  York.    ( Tribune  Fanner) 


452  THE  APPLE 

cultivations.  Over-irrigation  gives  soft,  watery,  poorly  flavored  and 
poorly  colored  fruit  which  does  not  keep  or  carry  well.  Some  of 
the  best  orchardists  in  the  Inland  Valleys,  who  used  to  irrigate 
four  or  five  times  a  year,  now  irrigate  but  once  or  twice,  and  keep 
up  cultivation  the  rest  of  the  summer. 

2.  Pruning.  The  methods  of  pruning  orchards  in  the  Coast 
Region  are  just  the  opposite  of  those  prevailing  in  the  inland 
regions.  The  climatic  and  soil  conditions  of  the  Coast  Region 
tend  to  produce  a  rapid  growth  of  wood,  and  as  a  result  fruit  trees 
come  into  bearing  several  years  later  than  those  in  the  interior. 
They  are  often  made  unfruitful  by  this  luxuriant  growth,  and  have 
to  be  checked  in  order  to  throw  them  into  bearing.  It  is  advisable 
to  winter-prune  some  orchards  on  the  heavier  soils,  but  a  large 
proportion  of  Coast  Region  orchards,  especially  apple  orchards  on 
the  lowlands,  should  be  pruned  in  summer  or  spring.  Many  orchards 
are  pruned  when  in  full  blossom,  sometimes  as  much  as  half  the 
tree  being  pruned  off  at  that  time.  The  effect  of  this  treatment  is 
to  check  the  exuberant  growth  and  induce  fruitfulness.  Root- 
pruning  is  also  practiced  to  a  limited  extent. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  drier  inland  regions  fruit  trees  come 
into  bearing  very  early  and  run  to  fruit  instead  of  to  wood.  They 
often  bear  themselves  to  death  unless  properly  managed.  The  aim 
of  the  inland  orchardist  is  not  to  reduce  wood  growth  by  summer 
pruning,  but  to  increase  it  by  winter  pruning.  Practically  all  the 
pruning  in  this  region  is  done  in  winter  or  early  spring. 

There  is  a  similar  difference  of  practice  in  the  training  of  fruit 
trees  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Cascades.  On  the  western  side,  fruit 
trees  are  headed  4  or  5  feet  high,  as  in  the  old  fruit  sections  of  the 
Eastern  seaboard.  Every  effort  is  made  to  elevate  the  tree  into 
the  air  and  to  keep  its  top  well  thinned  so  that  the  fruit  will  color 
and  ripen  well.  In  western  British  Columbia  the  fruit-growers  do 
not  cut  back  the  leader  at  the  time  of  planting,  or  at  any  other 
time.  Some  claim  that  the  ideal  apple  tree  for  that  climate  is  one 
which  does  not  have  a  spreading  top,  but  instead  has  a  tall,  strong, 
central  leader  reaching  high  into  the  air,  with  many  small  limbs 
distributed  evenly  along  it. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Cascades,  fruit  trees  are  headed  low 
because  of  the  high  winds  prevailing  in  that  region  and  because  of 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES        453 


the  danger  of  injury  from  sunscald.  The  two  extremes  are  I  foot 
and  2 1  feet,  the  latter  being  the  most  common  height  for  apple 
trees.  The  tops  of  the  inland  trees  are  kept  much  thicker  than 
those  in  the  Coast  Region  and  in  the  Atlantic  States.  A  very 
diffuse  and  spreading  habit  of  growth  is  desired  from  the  beginning. 
Every  effort  is  made  to  keep  the  trees  close  to  the  ground  and  to 
shade  the  trunks.  The  greater  difficulty  in  tilling  orchards  of  such 
low-headed  trees  is  considered  not  at  all  commensurate  with  the 
advantages  gained  in  free- 
dom from  sunscald,  in  the 
lessened  danger  of  injury 
from  high  winds,  and  in 
the  increased  facility  of 
harvesting  and  spraying. 
It  is  rare  that  one  can  find 
within  a  few  hundred  miles 
of  each  other  such  utterly 
dissimilar  methods  of  hor- 
ticultural practice  as  are  to 
be  seen  in  Northwestern 
fruit-growing. 

3 .  Coi 'cr  crops.  I n  both 
the  Inland  Uplands  and 
the  Inland  Valleys  the 
question  of  cover  crops 
for  orchards  is  now  attract- 
ing attention.  Almost  all 
the  orchard  soils  in  both 

regions  are  deficient  in  humus,  and  constant  clean  tillage  during  the 
hot,  dry  summers  tends  to  burn  out  of  the  soils  what  little  humus 
they  have  naturally.  In  the  Inland  Valley  orchards  the  cover-crop 
problem  is  not  so  difficult  as  in  the  upland  orchards,  because  mois- 
ture for  the  germination  of  cover-crop  seeds  can  be  supplied  at 
any  time  by  irrigation.  On  the  uplands,  however,  practically  no 
rain  falls  between  the  first  of  July  and  the  first  of  October.  It  is 
absolutely  essential  that  the  orchard  be  tilled  early  in  the  season  ; 
therefore  no  cover  crop  can  be  sown  over  all  the  ground  in  spring. 
When  tillage  has  ceased  in  late  July  or  August  the  soil  is  so  dry 


Fig.  192.    Ingram  apples  in  the  Ozarks 


454  THE  APPLE 

that  even  field  peas  will  not  germinate  unless  drilled  in  deeply. 
Other  seeds  simply  lie  in  the  soil  without  germinating  until  the  fall 
rains  come  in  October.  There  are  two  ways  of  getting  a  cover 
crop  in  the  orchards  of  the  Inland  Uplands.  Some  crop  must  be 
found  that  can  be  sown  in  early  fall  and  will  make  growth  enough 
before  winter  to  protect  the  ground.  For  this  purpose  no  more 
satisfactory  crop  than  field  peas  has  yet  been  found.  Another  way 
would  be  alternate  strips  of  cultivated  land  and  spring-sown  cover 
crops  ;  reverse  from  tillage  to  cover  crops  the  next  season  or  from 
cover  crops  to  tillage. 

4.  Insects  and  diseases.  The  Northwest  was  at  first  quite  free 
from  serious  insect  pests  and  diseases.  On  the  strength  of  this 
experience  many  of  the  early  fruit-growers  based  the  hopeful  pre- 
diction that  fruit  pests  would  never  be  a  serious  problem  in  this 
region,  and  called  to  the  aid  of  the  argument  certain  peculiarities 
of  climate  which  were  supposed  to  be  unfavorable  to  their  develop- 
ment. Stringent  laws  which  aim  to  exclude  all  diseased  and  in- 
fested nursery  stock  and  fruit  have  been  passed.  All  nursery  stock 
grown  there  and  all  that  is  shipped  into  this  section  is  supposed 
to  be  carefully  inspected  for  injurious  insects  and  diseases  before 
being  planted.  In  spite  of  these  precautions  practically  all  the 
common  insects  and  diseases  of  Eastern  orchards  are  now  found 
in  the  Northwest.  Laws  have  failed  to  keep  them  out,  and  the 
responsibility  for  their  control  now  falls  on  the  shoulders  of  indi- 
vidual growers. 

The  humid  climate  of  the  Coast  Region  is  favorable  for  the 
growth  of  fungous  diseases.  Apple  scab,  bitter  rot,  and  brown  rot 
are  serious.  Careful  spraying  keeps  these  diseases  in  check,  but 
the  frequent  rains  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  make  spraying 
less  efficient  and  more  expensive  than  in  inland  orchards.  The 
russeting  of  fruit  from  spraying  is  also  very  common  in  this  wet 
climate.  The  New  York  apple  canker  and  a  somewhat  similar  dis- 
ease, called  the  dead-spot  apple  canker  and  known  only  in  the 
Northwest,  are  found  in  neglected  orchards.  This  canker  appears 
as  small  sunken  areas  of  dead  bark,  from  1  to  2  inches  in  diameter, 
which  are  often  so  numerous  as  to  girdle  the  trunks  or  scaffold 
limbs  of  young  trees.  Painting  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  wrapping 
the   trunks  with   building  paper  or  burlap,  and   top-working  on 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES        45  5 

the  more  resistant  varieties  are  the  most  satisfactory  methods  of 
controlling  the  ravages  of  the  canker. 

The  prevalence  of  fungous  diseases  will  always  be  a  serious  hin- 
drance to  commercial  orcharding  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
but  this  region  is  not  seriously  infested  with  insects.  The  codling 
moth  is  easily  controlled.  The  San  Jose  scale  is  common,  but  is 
easily  kept  down  with  the  lime-sulphur-salt  spray. 

The  Inland  Valley  fruit-growers  have  practically  no  trouble  with 
fungous  diseases,  because  of  their  very  dry  climate,  but  are  griev- 
ously tormented  with  insects,  especially  the  codling  moth.  At  least 
90  per  cent  of  the  orchards  in  this  region  have  codling  moth  in 
them.  There  are  several  broods  each  season,  and  the  broods  over- 
lap, so  that  it  is  a  continuous  fight  from  the  fall  of  the  blossoms 
until  the  last  of  August.  In  the  Northwest  the  codling  moth  is  a 
far  more  serious  orchard  pest  than  the  San  Jose  scale.  Some  of 
the  best  growers  are  able  to  save  from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  their 
crop  by  giving  from  five  to  six  sprayings  each  season,  at  intervals 
of  from  two  to  three  weeks,  the  first  spraying  being  given  imme- 
diately after  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  as  in  the  East.  This  one 
spraying  is  not  sufficient,  however,  for  it  is  the  later  broods  which 
do  the  most  damage.  Arsenite  of  soda,  in  several  formulas,  is  the 
material  most  commonly  used.  Spraying  is  usually  supplemented 
by  banding  the  trees.  One  large  grower  reports  that  he  has  trapped 
4000  codling  moths  in  one  season  under  the  bands  of  750  trees. 

Many  growers  now  thin  their  apples,  so  that  no  two  fruits  touch 
each  other.  The  thinning  of  apples  is  coming  to  be  recognized  as 
a  profitable  orchard  practice  in  the  Northwest,  and  it  is  one  which 
many  Eastern  growers  might  follow  to  advantage. 

The  orchards  of  the  Inland  Uplands  are  favored  with  compara- 
tive freedom  from  injurious  insects  and  diseases,  except  that  apple 
scab,  codling  moth,  and  San  Jose  scale  are  present  to  a  limited 
extent.  The  dry  summers  are  not  favorable  for  the  growth  of  fun- 
gous diseases,  and  the  cool  nights  and  short  seasons  are  supposed 
to  limit  insect  development.  Although  the  upland  orchardists  can- 
not expect  complete  immunity  from  insects  and  diseases,  as  many 
have  hopefully  predicted,  it  is  quite  certain  that  they  will  not  be  as 
seriously  troubled  with  them  as  the  fruit-growers  in  other  sections 
of  the  Northwest. 


456  THE  APPLE 

5.  Marketing.  The  cities  of  Portland,  Seattle,  Tacoma,  Spokane, 
Vancouver,  and  Victoria  are  all  excellent  and  growing  markets, 
but  they  cannot  consume  a  fiftieth  part  of  the  fruit  raised  in  the 
Northwest.  The  chief  markets  for  this  fruit  at  present  are  the 
mining  camps  of  Washington,  Oregon,  British  Columbia,  Montana, 
and  the  cities  of  the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota.  It  is  well  known  that 
mining  camps  are  much  better  markets  for  fruits  and  vegetables, 
in  proportion  to  the  population,  than  manufacturing  towns.  Butte, 
Montana,  is  the  center  of  an  extensive  mining  district  and  is  one 
of  the  largest  distributing  centers  for  Northwestern  fruit ;  but 
Montana  now  has  a  million  fruit  trees  coming  into  bearing,  and 
these  will  soon  claim  a  share  of  this  trade. 

The  local  towns  and  mining  camps  of  the  Northwest  will  always 
be  important  markets  for  the  fruit  of  this  section,  but  one  is  con- 
vinced that  the  great  opportunity  of  Northwestern  fruit-growers  is 
in  developing  a  market  in  Alaska  and  the  Orient.  The  Northwest 
occupies  a  strategic  position  with  reference  to  oriental  trade. 
Through  the  wonderful  inland  harbor  of  Puget  Sound  will  pour 
most  of  the  vast  volume  of  trade  which  is  bound  to  pass  between 
the  United  States  and  Japan,  China,  the  Philippines,  and  other 
Asiatic  countries.  That  there  has  long  been  a  waiting  market  in 
the  Orient  for  the  fresh  and  preserved  fruits  of  other  countries  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1 899  the  exportations  of  fruit  from  vari- 
ous sources,  chiefly  American,  to  oriental  markets  were  valued  at 
about  $700,000.00.  The  white  population  of  these  countries  almost 
entirely  depend  upon  the  imported  fruits  to  supply  their  tables. 
The  tinned  fruits  found  in  the  Orient  come  mostly  from  America, 
and  the  preserved  fruits  from  Europe.  Within  the  past  few  years 
a  good  market  for  Northwestern  apples  has  been  opened  up  in 
Siberia,  and  each  year  many  apples  are  shipped  to  Australia,  the 
Winesap  being  a  special  favorite  for  this  trade.  Several  thousand 
boxes  of  apples,  principally  the  Ben  Davis,  are  annually  shipped  to 
China  and  invariably  reach  there  in  good  condition. 

In  1900  about  150,000  boxes  of  Pacific  coast  apples  were  ex- 
ported to  P2urope  via  New  York.  The  freight  tariff  on  carload  lots 
of  apples  from  Pacific  Ocean  terminals  and  intermediate  points  to 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  cities  was  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds  for 
apples   in   boxes.     The   railroad   men   explain  this   high   rate  in 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES        457 

various  ways,  but  most  unbiased  persons  agree  that  as  a  rule  the 
freight  rates  on  Northwestern  fruits  are  exorbitant. 

The  apple  barrel  of  the  East  is  almost  entirely  replaced  here 
with  the  bushel  box.  The  standard  box  is  18  x  11  x  io.1,  in.  To 
accommodate  certain  sizes  of  fruit,  there  is  a  special  apple  box, 
which  is  20  x  11  x  10]  in.  These  are  inside  measurements,  with 
end  pieces  |  inch  thick.  The  boxes  cost  about  $9.00  per  hundred 
knocked  down.  All  filled  boxes  are  supposed  to  weigh  50  pounds 
and  contain  1  bushel  of  fruit.  The  choicest  apples,  particularly 
the  yellow-skinned  varieties,  are  commonly  wrapped  before  being 
packed.  The  packing  of  fruit  in  tiers  in  these  boxes  gives  a  uni- 
formity which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  secure  in  barrel  packing. 
Barrels  are  sometimes  used  for  shipping  apples  across  the  sea,  as 
the  salt  air  injures  certain  varieties  when  packed  in  boxes,  but  these 
constitute  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  fruit  marketed. 

6.  Organisation.  The  Northwest  country  realizes  that  its  future 
lies  in  thorough  organization.  The  men  are  enthusiastic  for  it,  and 
being  so  aggressive  they  generally  get  what  they  want.  Meetings 
of  the  men  in  horticultural  organizations  are  full  of  vim  and  snap, 
and  teem  with  the  "  get  there  "  spirit  of  this  progressive  country. 

Apple-growing  in  western  New  York.  The  western  New  York 
apple-growing  belt  embraces  territory  about  125  miles  long  and 
from  10  to  20  miles  in  width.  It  includes  parts  of  eleven  counties 
—  Niagara,  Orleans,  Monroe,  Genesee,  Livingston,  Wayne,  Cay- 
uga, Oswego,  Ontario,  Seneca,  and  Yates.  From  10  to  15  per  cent 
of  the  total  area  of  these  counties  is  planted  to  apple  trees  of  various 
kinds,  and  in  1909,  according  to  the  last  census,  they  contained 
40  per  cent  of  the  apple  trees  and  produced  5  3  per  cent  of  all  the 
apples  grown  in  the  state  of  New  York. 

Practically  all  the  young  orchards  are  being  set  with  fillers, 
peach  trees  being  used  extensively  and  with  great  success  in  the 
peach-growing  sections.  The  distance  apart  is  not  over  20  feet, 
and  usually  it  is  18.  The  rectangular  method  of  planting  is 
followed,  with  every  other  tree  in  one  row  a  permanent  tree  and 
the  others  fillers,  and  in  the  next  row  all  fillers.  Out  of  four  trees 
three  are  peach  and  one  is  apple.  In  other  sections  the  system 
most  often  employed  is  to  use  other  varieties  of  the  apple  for 
fillers,    especially    the    so-called    early-bearing  varieties.     At   the 


458  THE  APPLE 

present  time  Wealthy  and  Mcintosh  are  probably  the  leading 
fillers,  although  several  years  ago  Duchess  was  heavily  planted 
and  in  some  sections  still  holds  its  own.  Kings  are  employed 
frequently,  chiefly  because  of  the  small  size  of  an  old  tree. 

If  apples  are  used  for  fillers,  the  plantings  are  seldom  closer 
than  20  x  20  ft.  More  frequently  the  distance  is  25x25  ft.,  in 
which  case  the  diagonal  system  of  planting  is  used,  especially  in  all 
cases  where  the  trees  are  of  medium  or  small  size.  Half  the  trees 
under  this  system  will  ultimately  be  cut  out,  solid  rows  being  cut 
diagonally  across  the  field.    This  system  gives  a  distance  between 


Fig.  193.    An  orchard  in  western  New  York 

General  view  of  the  orchard  of  E.  W.  Catchpole  at  North  Rose,  New  York 
( Tribune  Farmer) 

the  permanent  trees  of  between  35  and  36  feet.  Another  point 
in  favor  of  this  system  of  planting  which  carries  weight  with  the 
New  York  farmer  is  that  it  is  necessary  to  determine  which  of 
two  varieties  planted  together  will  ultimately  be  left.  This  gives 
the  owner  an  opportunity  of  planting  one  of  the  old-time  varieties 
and  also  one  of  the  newer  varieties,  but  it  does  not  require  him 
to  determine  in  advance  which  he  will  keep  for  his  permanent 
orchard. 

More  two-year-old  trees  have  been  set  than  one-year-old.  The 
younger  tree  is,  however,  gaining  in  favor.  The  trees  are  headed 
fairly  low,  about  30  inches  being  the  average  height,  although 
high-headed  trees  are  common  in  some  sections,  particularly  near 


FRUIT-GROWING  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES        459 

Rose,  New  York.  Both  roots  and  tops  are  generally  trimmed  at 
the  time  of  setting.  Little  pruning  is  required  before  the  tree 
begins  to  bear.  Branches  which  cross  are  removed  and  possibly  a 
few  of  the  limbs  growing  back  into  the  tree  are  pruned  out,  but 
very  little  of  the  new  growth  is  cut  back.  After  fruiting,  pruning 
is  given  more  attention  and  the  tree  is  kept  more  open  and  free 
from  obstructing  limbs  and  dead  wood. 

The  best  growers  are  believers  in  thorough  cultivation,  although 
there  are  a  few  notable  exceptions,  some  of  whom  have  good  grounds 
for  their  belief  in  the  sod-mulch  practice.  We  cultivate  for  the 
purpose  of  conserving  moisture  in  the  soil  and  of  preparing  the 
soil  for  root  activity.  In  Monroe  County  practically  a  third  of  all 
the  apple  orchards  are  cultivated  every  year.  Almost  another  third 
is  cultivated  at  least  three  years  out  of  five.  Some  of  the  best 
growers  practice  fall  plowing,  especially  when  no  cover  crop  oc- 
cupies the  ground.  This  aids  materially  in  reducing  the  spring 
work,  for  when  the  orchard  has  been  plowed  before  winter  a  disk 
harrow  can  be  used  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  Thorough 
cultivation  is  then  practiced  until  midsummer.  The  spring-tooth 
harrow  is  used  extensively,  and  when  the  soil  is  very  fine  and  the 
rains  are  not  heavy  a  spike-tooth  drag  or  even  a  weeder  may  be 
used.  All  the  ground  is  plowed  and  cultivated,  even  up  to  the 
tree  trunks,  the  soil  around  which  is  hoed. 

After  cultivation  stops,  many  orchardists  allow  the  weeds  to 
grow,  forming  a  cover  crop  ;  others  plant  such  crops  as  buckwheat 
or  rye.  Legumes  are  not  planted  much  because  of  the  failure  to 
get  a  good  stand  when  sown  in  July.  Some  have  sown  legumes 
in  May  or  early  June,  and  have  had  a  good  crop,  which  was  plowed 
under  early  the  following  spring.  When  the  cover  crop  is  sown  late 
in  the  summer,  it  is  not  plowed  under  until  late  the  following  spring, 
or  it  may  be  left  over  the  whole  summer.  A  cover  crop  made  up 
of  cowhorn  turnips,  oats,  and  clover  or  vetch  is  coming  into  favor. 

Where  orchards  have  been  placed  on  light  or  poor  soils  a  new 
method  of  cover  cropping  is  used.  The  ground  is  plowed  in  the 
spring  and  kept  thoroughly  cultivated  until  late  spring,  when  corn 
is  drilled  in.  A  coating  of  manure  may  be  used  to  produce  a  good 
stand  of  corn.  In  the  late  summer,  when  the  corn  has  reached  a 
rank  growth  but  before  it  shows  any  signs  of  ripening,  it  is  plowed 


460  THE  APPLE 

under,  —  a  heavy  chain  being  needed  to  pull  the  corn  under,  — 
and  a  cover  crop  is  sown  immediately.  This  may  be  rye  or  turnips, 
or  some  of  the  mixtures  recommended  where  a  leguminous  plant 
is  included. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  being  used  somewhat,  but  many  good 
growers  are  meeting  with  success  without  any.  Stable  manure  is 
always  used  when  available.  A  good  many  cars  of  this  are  shipped 
into  this  section  each  year  from  Buffalo.  It  is  difficult  to  secure, 
and  has  to  be  ordered  a  long  time  in  advance. 

Intercropping  for  a  few  years  is  generally  practiced  —  potatoes, 
beans,  cabbage,  peas,  carrots,  and  other  vegetables  being  used  — 
and  the  tree  rows  are  kept  thoroughly  cultivated.  It  is  unusual  to 
see  a  young  orchard  kept  for  any  time  in  the  sod. 

A  few  of  our  better  growers  are  beginning  to  practice  summer 
thinning,  which  is  done  in  July  and  August.  The  entire  tree  is 
gone  over,  and  such  varieties  as  Northern  Spy  and  Twenty  Ounce 
are  thinned  to  one  apple  in  a  cluster.  Not  more  than  two  apples 
of  any  variety  are  ever  left  in  a  cluster,  and  all  poor  apples,  what- 
ever the  fault,  are  removed. 

Most  growers  in  this  section  are  not  enthusiastic  over  top-working 
young  trees,  for  there  have  been  many  failures.  Budding  high  on 
the  trunk  is  practiced  in  some  parts,  while  whip-grafting  is  more 
commonly  practiced,  and  seems  to  be  more  successful. 

Spraying  is  done  thoroughly  by  many  orchardists  with  gasoline- 
power  outfits.  The  San  Jose  scale  is  scattered  over  the  whole 
state ;  this  necessitates  the  dormant  spray,  consisting  of  lime- 
sulphur  i  to  9  or  i  o,  either  a  commercial  brand  or  a  homemade 
mixture  being  used.  The  second  spraying  comes  just  before  blos- 
soming and  should  be  finished  as  the  cluster  buds  are  beginning 
to  break  apart.  The  lime-sulphur  solution  is  applied  in  about  the 
proportion  of  I  to  30.  Growers  differ  somewhat  in  their  practice 
at  the  third  application.  Some  employ  the  poison  spray,  using 
enough  to  cover  the  closing  buds  thoroughly  ;  others  add  the  lime- 
sulphur  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  35  or  40,  or  even  50,  and  try- 
to  spray  light  enough  so  that  the  leaves  will  not  drip  at  any  time. 
A  fourth  spraying  is  given  when  the  apples  are  about  the  size  of 
hickory  nuts,  and  many  orchardists  make  a  fifth  application.  Some 
growers  are  still  using  Bordeaux  mixture,  but  lime-sulphur  has  come 


FRUIT-GROWING   IN  THE  UNITED   STATES 


461 


to  be  quite  generally  adopted.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  used  for  the 
insecticide,  taking  from  2.1,  to  4  pounds  for  each  50  gallons.  This 
at  greater  or  less  strength  is  used  at  each  spraying. 

Harvesting  labor  is  of  the  transient  variety,  called  "hobo." 
Some  growers  pay  12  or  15  cents  a  barrel  ;  others  pay  by  the  day, 
from  Si. 50  to  S2.00  or  more,  with  board,  many  orchardists  being 
equipped  with  cheap  boarding  or  lodging  houses. 

Some  grading  of  the  fruit  is  practiced,  but  all  qualities  can  be 
found  throughout  this  section.    A  No.  1  apple  should  be  z\  inches 


Fig.  194.    Dunn  Farm,  Chazy,  Clinton  County,  New  Y 
(['holograph  by  F.  E.  Welch) 


in  diameter  and  reasonably  free  from  worms,  scab,  and  blemishes 
of  any  kind.  In  packing,  the  fruit  is  taken  by  hand  from  the  sort- 
ing table,  and  the  top  of  the  barrel  is  tailed  off.  The  barrel  is  taken 
down  about  3  inches  below  the  top,  and  the  apples  are  placed  cheeks 
up,  beginning  on  the  outside,  making  a  complete  circle.  The  fruit 
is  brought  up  just  level  with  the  top  of  the  barrel,  and  is  then  prop- 
erly tacked  and  taken  away.  The  best  growers  pack  this  way, 
although  there  are  other  methods  in  use. 

The  fruit  is  packed  immediately  after  picking,  generally  in  the  or- 
chard, although  some  growers  have  a  central  packing  house.  When 
the  fruit  is  packed,  it  is  drawn  to  the  cold-storage  house  or  to  the  rail- 
road ;  in  general,  the  pack  of  one  day  is  in  storage  the  following  day. 


462  THE  APPLE 

Provided  competition  is  good  and  prices  strong  the  fruit- 
grower sells  much  of  the  fruit  before  harvesting,  the  sales  being 
based  either  on  a  packed  barrel  or  on  a  barrel  of  tree-run  fruit. 
Under  the  first  method  the  grower  packs  his  own  fruit ;  under 
the  second,  the  grower  picks  the  fruit  and  puts  it  on  the  sorting 
table,  but  the  buyer  does  the  work  of  sorting  and  packing.  This 
last  method  has  grown  in  favor  during  recent  years.  In  some 
sections  fruit  is  still  sold  in  bulk  on  the  trees.  Other  growers 
dispose  of  their  apples  at  so  much  per  hundred  pounds. 

Buyers  have  been  too  plentiful  and  competition  too  keen  to 
stimulate  any  movement  looking  toward  cooperation.  As  a  result, 
all  kinds  and  grades  of  packing  will  be  found. 

The  Baldwin  apple  leads  all  others,  with  the  Rhode  Island 
Greening  ranking  next.  Probably  these  two  varieties  supply  over 
half  the  apples  grown  for  market.  The  Northern  Spy  ranks 
third,  with  King,  Hubbardston,  Esopus,  Twenty  Ounce,  Duchess, 
Wagener,  and  several  others  following,  but  probably  not  in  the 
order  named. 

In  recent  years  the  desire  to  obtain  quick  returns  from  young 
orchards  has  been  of  prime  importance  ;  hence  large  numbers  of 
early-bearing  varieties  have  been  put  out.  The  Duchess,  Alexander, 
Wagener,  and  Hubbardston  have  all  been  planted  extensively,  and 
in  some  sections  the  Twenty  Ounce  has  more  than  held  its  own. 
The  Rhode  Island  Greening  has  also  been  used  largely,  but  com- 
paratively few  Kings  have  been  set.  The  tendency  is  more  and 
more  toward  using  these  old-time,  money- making  varieties  rather 
than  the  newer,  untried  ones.  The  Baldwin  is  to-day  being  set 
very  extensively,  and  many  of  the  Spy  trees,  originally  set  out  with 
the  intention  of  top-working,  will  probably  be  left  as  they  are,  or 
possibly  grafted  to  Baldwin  or  King.  Mcintosh  is  another  apple 
which  is  demanding  considerable  attention  at  the  present  time. 

The  Ozark  region.  This  is  a  much  larger  region  than  is  ordi- 
narily supposed,  its  approximate  boundaries  being  the  Missouri 
and  Osage  rivers  on  the  north  and  northwest,  the  St.  Francis  River 
on  the  east,  and  the  Arkansas  on  the  south.  It  is  then  an  irregular 
oval  running  southwest  from  the  center  of  Missouri,  covering  parts 
of  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Oklahoma,  the  whole  area  being  prac- 
tically equal  to  the  state  of  Missouri. 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES        463 

The  geological  history  of  the  country  is  interesting,  for  repre- 
sentatives of  every  geological  age  from  the  Archaean  to  the  Car- 
boniferous inclusive  have  been  found  here.  Limestone  varying 
in  character  from  the  disintegrating  form  to  the  flinty  shale  is  the 
predominating  rock  formation.  Broken  shale,  sandstone,  and  here 
and  there  granitic  formations  are  found. 

The  designation  Ozark  Mountains  gives  the  impression  of  a 
prominently  elevated  region,  but  the  country  is  not  truly  moun- 
tainous. One  of  the  distinctive  features  of  this  interesting  country 
is  the  surprising  and  spontaneous  way  in  which  streams  break 
forth  from  the  limestone  strata  ;  in  southern  Missouri  and  northern 
Arkansas  these  occurrences  are  numerous  and  noteworthy.  The 
elevations  may  be  thrown  into  two  groups  —  the  lower  levels,  fol- 
lowing the  stream  valleys,  and  the  upper  levels,  the  side  hills  and 
plateaus,  which  the  orchardists  are  climbing  in  setting  trees. 

Measured  by  years  the  commercial  fruit-growing  of  the  Ozarks 
is  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  old.  Apples  and  peaches  have 
been  successfully  cultivated  for  many  years,  but  the  commercial 
plantings  have  practically  all  occurred  within  the  last  twenty-five 
years,  and  the  heavy  development  of  the  country  within  the  last 
fifteen  years. 

Apples  and  peaches  are  the  staple  crops.  Other  fruits  are 
grown  to  a  somewhat  limited  extent  in  certain  sections,  but  the 
crop  of  the  country  is  the  apple.  In  the  middle  elevations  of 
Arkansas  the  peach  industry  leads. 

The  fruit-grower  from  the  East  is  struck  by  the  following  impor- 
tant features  in  the  apple  orchards  of  this  region.  (1)  The  trees 
are  planted  from  20  to  30  feet  apart,  with  60  to  70  trees  per  acre. 
(2)  Very  little  pruning  is  done.  (3)  Comparatively  little  tilling  is 
done.  In  fact,  the  ground  is  so  stony  in  many  places  that  surface 
tillage  would  seem  impossible  to  the  man  accustomed  to  sandy  or 
loamy  conditions.  The  surface  of  many  orchards  in  the  side-hill 
region  is  covered  with  loose,  shaly  stone.  (4)  The  trees  come  into 
bearing  early.    (5)  They  appear  to  age  young. 

The  king  of  the  region  is  the  Ben  Davis.  The  following  varieties 
are  those  held  in  greatest  popularity  by  the  heavy  planters  —  first 
choice  :  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  York  Imperial,  Jonathan,  Grimes,  In- 
gram ;  second  choice  :  Huntsman,  Willow,  Pippin,  Winesap,  Ralls. 


464  THE  APPLE 

The  great  cities  of  the  Middle  West  are  the  consumers  of 
the  big  red  apple  of  the  Ozarks.  Chicago,  Omaha,  St.  Louis,  and 
other  river  towns  appreciate  perhaps  more  fully  the  qualities  of 
the  apple  and  peach  products  of  this  region  than  do  the  cities 
of  the  East.  It  is  certain  that  for  apples  that  require  warm  soil, 
fervent  day  heat,  and  relatively  cool  nights  the  conditions  in  this 
region  are  most  favorable,  and  the  Ben  Davis  of  the  Ozarks  is 
a  different  creation  from  the  Ben  Davis  of  New  York  or  New 
England,  and  a  better  one. 

The  region  is  being  rapidly  developed,  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  because  apple  trees  are  being  planted  there  by  the  hundreds 
of  thousands  it  is  going  to  dominate  the  apple-producing  sections 
of  the  United  States.  Drawbacks  are  found  here  as  elsewhere. 
Cold  rains  and  unfavorable  spring  conditions  have  blasted  fruit 
prospects  for  three  consecutive  years.  Present  fruit-growing  methods 
will  probably  need  modification  as  time  goes  on. 

It  is  worth  noting  that  on  account  of  the  small  stature  of  the 
trees  and  the  hilly  and  irregular  surface  of  the  ground,  many  of  the 
Ozark  fruit-growers  have  adopted  the  dust  or  dry-spray  method 
of  combating  insects  and  other  plant  parasites. 

The  fruit-growers  of  the  region  are  energetic,  hospitable  people, 
and  visitors  are  welcomed  and  entertained  with  true  Western 
heartiness. 

The  Nova  Scotia  section.  Much  English  capital  has  been  in- 
vested in  the  growing  of  apples  in  Nova  Scotia,  the  center  of  the 
industry  being  in  the  beautiful  Annapolis  valley.  The  varieties  of 
apples  which  have  proved  most  generally  successful  in  the  cold- 
est sections  of  Nova  Scotia  are  as  follows  :  Yellow  Transparent, 
Wrealthy,  Ribston,  Baxter,  Mcintosh,  Stark.  The  ten  most  pop- 
ular and  largely  grown  sorts  for  the  Annapolis  valley  and  other 
more  favorable  sections  are  probably  the  Gravenstein,  Ribston, 
Blenheim,  Northern  Spy,  Baldwin,  King,  Nonpareil,  Eallawater, 
Golden  Russet,  and  Stark. 

The  general  tendency  of  the  planters  in  this  region  is  to  hold 
to  the  better  quality  of  varieties.  However,  considerable  plantings 
have  recently  been  made  of  Ben  Davis  and  Gano.  The  apples 
are  generally  exported  to  England,  principally  to  the  Liverpool 
market,  the  annual  export  being  from  250,000  to  400,000  barrels. 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES        465 

The  methods  of  marketing  have  changed  very  slowly  so  far  as 
the  package  is  concerned.  There  is  probably  a  very  slight  increase 
in  the  quantity  of  apples  shipped  in  boxes,  but  for  the  most  part 
the  barrel  is  used,  since  it  has  proved  satisfactory  to  the  English 
market.  Barrels  are  manufactured  especially  for  the  Nova  Scotia 
apple  trade,  the  flat-hooped  barrel  being  the  one  most  desired 
because  of  its  better  appearance.  The  size  of  the  barrel  in  Nova 
Scotia  is  96  quarts,  while  in  Ontario  it  is  112  quarts,  but  there 
will  undoubtedly  be  some  law  passed  requiring  a  uniform  size. 


FlG.  195.    A  Rhode  Island  orchard 
A  portion  of  a  iooo-tree  orchard  in  Rhode  Island.    (Courtesy  of  A.  E.  Stene) 

Owing  largely  to  the  Fruit  Marks  Act  the  honesty  and  care 
with  which  apples  are  packed  have  materially  improved.  This  im- 
provement has,  in  a  measure,  been  the  result  of  the  fear  of  detec- 
tion on  the  part  of  fraudulent  packers,  but  it  is  chiefly  the  result  of 
the  educational  effect  of  the  law,  through  demonstrations  of  the 
proper  way  to  pack  apples  and  the  arousing  of  a  general  interest 
in  the  matter. 

There  has  been  a  gradual  increase  in  the  percentage  of  orchards 
which  are  thoroughly  cultivated  ;  in  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  as  a 
rule  cultivation  is  more  common  than  any  other  method  of  manage- 
ment.   Clean  culture  is  practiced  up  to  about  July  1,  when  some 


466  THE  APPLE 

cover  crop  is  sown.  The  most  popular  plants  are  clovers  (medium 
and  mammoth),  buckwheat,  and  vetch.  In  some  special  cases  alfalfa 
has  proved  very  satisfactory. 

The  San  Jose  scale  to  date  has  not  caused  great  trouble  in  this 
section.  This  is  indeed  remarkable,  because  large  quantities  of 
stock  are  imported  each  year  from  regions  where  the  scale  is 
known  to  exist.  The  most  serious  pests  continue  to  be  the  codling 
moth,  bud  moth,  cankerworm,  tent  caterpillar,  oyster-shell  scale, 
apple  scab,  and  some  other  diseases.  In  spite  of  the  most  careful 
spraying,  these  pests  take  their  large  annual  tolls. 

Cold  storage  is  very  little  practiced  in  Nova  Scotia.  There  are 
a  few  growers  who  have  small  iced  compartments  in  their  packing 
houses  where  fruit  may  be  held,  but  for  the  most  part  the  frost- 
proof warehouses  are  found  sufficient,  as  they  are  cool  even 
during  the  warm  days. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

VARIETIES 

It  is  highly  important  that  the  apple-grower  have  a  fairly 
definite  idea  of  the  varieties  that  are  worth  while.  An  alpha- 
betical list  of  apples  with  a  short  description  of  each  may  serve 
as  a  guide  in  suggesting  possible  varieties.  It  is  not  intended, 
however,  to  give  a  complete  list,  but  one  that  will  show  the  most 
common  varieties. 

Akin.  Originated  in  Illinois.  Form  conical.  Color  yellowish-red.  Flavor 
subacid.  Quality  very  good.  Size  medium  large.  Season  late.  Use :  dessert 
and  general  market  apple. 

Alexander.  Originated  in  Russia.  Form  roundish-conical.  Color  greenish- 
yellow  with  many  red  stripes.  Flavor  acid.  Quality  good.  Size  very  large. 
Season  medium.    Use :  cooking.    Good  shipper. 

Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black  Twig).  Originated  in  Arkansas.  Form  oblong- 
conical.  Color  yellowish-red.  Flavor  medium  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size 
large.    Season  late.    Use :  cooking.    Good  shipper. 

Arkansas  Black.  Originated  in  Arkansas.  Form  roundish-conical.  Color 
dark  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium  large.  Season  late. 
Use:   market  and  cooking.    Good  shipper. 

Autumn  Bough.  Origin  unknown,  but  probably  America.  Form  roundish- 
conical.  Color  greenish-yellow.  Flavor  sweet.  Quality  very  good.  Size  medium. 
Season  medium  early.    Use  :   dessert. 

Bailey  Sweet.  Originated  in  New  York.  Form  roundish-oblong-conical. 
Color  yellow  with  red  stripes.  Flavor  very  sweet.  Quality  very  good.  Size 
large.    Season  medium.    Use  :  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Baldwin.  Originated  in  Massachusetts.  Form  roundish-conical.  Color 
yellow  with  many  red  stripes.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good.  Size 
medium  large  to  large.  Season  late.  Use  :  dessert,  cooking,  and  market.  Good 
shipper. 

Banana.  Originated  in  Indiana.  Form  oblate.  Color  yellow-blushed.  Flavor 
medium  subacid.  Quality  very  good.  Size  medium  to  large.  Season  late. 
Use :  dessert. 

Ben  Davis  (Carolina,  New  York  Pippin).  Form  roundish-oblong-conical. 
Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium 
to  large.    Season  late.    Use:  market. 

467 


468  THE  APPLE 

Benoni.  Originated  in  Massachusetts.  Form  roundish-oblate-conical.  Color 
yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  mild  to  subacid.  Quality  very  good.  Size 
medium  to  large.    Season  medium  early.    Use :   dessert. 

Bethel  (Vermont).  Originated  in  Vermont  Form  round.  Color  yellow 
striped.    Quality  very  good.    Size  medium  to  large.    Season  late.    Use:  market. 

Bietigheimer  i  Keel  Bietigheimer).  Originated  in  Germany.  Form  oblate- 
conical.  Color  whitish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good. 
Size  very  large.    Season  medium  early.    Use  :  cooking  and  market. 

Black  Gillifloiver (Red  Gilliflower).  Form  oblong-conical.  Color  dark  red. 
Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium.  Season  medium  late.  Use  :  cook- 
ing and  market. 

Blenheim  (Blenheim  Orange).  Originated  in  England.  Form  roundish- 
oblate.  Color  yellowish  russet.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good.  Size 
large.    Season  late.    Use :   dessert  and  cooking. 

Blue  Pearmain.  Form  roundish-conical.  Color  dark-red  striped.  Flavor 
subacid.  Quality  very  good.  Size  very  large.  Season  late.  Use :  dessert  and 
market. 

Boil; en  (Boikenapfel).  Originated  in  Russia.  Quality  good.  Size  medium 
to  large.    Season  medium. 

Bough  (Sweet  Bough).  Originated  in  America.  Form  oblong-conical.  Color 
greenish-yellow.  Flavor  sweet.  Quality  very  good.  Size  medium  to  large. 
Season  early.    Use :   dessert  and  cooking. 

Buckingham  (Fall  Queen,  Byers'  Red).  Probably  originated  in  Virginia. 
Form  oblate-conical.  Color  greenish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  subacid. 
Quality  very  good.  Size  medium  to  large.  Season  medium  late.  Use  :  dessert, 
cooking,  and  market. 

Can  adit  Baldwin.  Originated  in  Quebec.  Form  oblate.  Flavor  subacid. 
Size  medium.    Season  very  late.    Use :   dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Canada  Reinette  (Canada  Pippin).  Probably  originated  in  Europe.  Form 
oblate-conical.  Color  greenish-yellow.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good. 
Size  very  large.    Season  late.    Use  :   dessert  and  market. 

I  'henango  \  Chenango  Strawberry).  Originated  in  New  York.  Form  oblong- 
conical.  Color  white  striped  with  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good. 
Size  medium.    Season  medium  early.    Use  :   dessert  and  market. 

Delicious.  Originated  in  Iowa.  Form  oblong-conical.  Color  yellow  striped 
with  red.  Flavor  mild  to  acid.  Quality  very  good.  Size  medium  to  large. 
Season  late.    Use :   dessert  and  market. 

Domine  (American  Nonpareil).  Form  oblate.  Color  greenish-yellow  striped 
with  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium.  Season  late.  Use : 
dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Early  I /arrest  (Prince's  Harvest).  Originated  in  America.  Form  roundish- 
oblate.  Color  pale  yellow.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good  to  best.  Size 
medium.    Season  very  early.    Use  :   dessert  and  cooking. 

Esopits  (Esopus  Spitzenburg).  Originated  in  New  York.  Form  roundish- 
oblong-conical.  Color  yellowish-red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good  to 
best.    Size  large.    Season  medium  to  late.    Use:  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 


VARIETIES  469 

Fallaivater  (Tulpehocken).  Originated  in  Pennsylvania.  Form  roundish- 
conical.  Color  yellowish-green  blushed.  Flavor  pleasant,  mild  subacid.  Quality 
good.    Size  very  large.    Season  medium  late.    Use :  cooking  and  market. 

Fall  Pippin  (Pound  Pippin).  Originated  in  America.  Form  roundish- 
oblong-oblate.  Color  yellowish-green.  Flavor  pleasant  subacid.  Quality  good 
to  very  good.  Size  very  large.  Season  medium.  Use :  dessert,  cooking,  and 
market. 

Fameuse  (Snow,  Snow  Apple).  Probably  originated  in  Canada.  Form 
roundish-oblate.  Color  greenish-yellow  to  red  or  crimson.  Flavor  subacid. 
Quality  very  good  to  best.  Size  medium  to  small.  Season  medium  early. 
Use :  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Gano  (Black  Ben).  Form  roundish-oblate.  Color  dark  yellowish-red.  Flavor 
mild  subacid.    Quality  good.    Size  large.    Season  late.    Use :  market. 

Golden  Russet  (New  York)  (English  Golden  Russet).  Probably  originated 
in  England.  Form  roundish-oblate.  Color  greenish-yellow  to  russet.  Flavor 
acid.  Quality  good  to  best.  Size  medium.  Season  late.  Use  :  dessert,  cooking, 
and  market. 

Golden  Sweet  (Orange  Sweeting).  Originated  in  Connecticut.  Form  round. 
Color  pale  yellow.  Flavor  rich  and  sweet.  Quality  good  to  very  good.  Size 
large.    Season  medium  early.    Use :  cooking  and  market. 

Gravenstein  (Early  Congress).  Originated  in  Germany.  Form  roundish- 
oblate.  Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good. 
Size  large.    Season  medium.    Use :   cooking  and  market. 

Grimes  (Grimes  Golden).  Originated  in  West  Virginia.  Form  roundish- 
oblate.  Color  yellow.  Flavor  rich  subacid.  Quality  very  good  to  best.  Size 
medium.    Season  medium  late.    Use:  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Haas  (Fall  Queen,  Gros  Premier).  Originated  in  Missouri.  Form  oblate- 
conical.  Color  greenish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good 
to  very  good.   Size  medium  to  large.   Season  medium.  Use:  cooking  and  market. 

Hubbardston  (Hubbardston  Nonsuch).  Originated  in  Massachusetts.  Form 
roundish-oblate.  Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very 
good.    Size  large.    Season  medium  late.    Use  :  dessert  and  cooking. 

Ingram  (Ingram's  Seedling).  Originated  in  Missouri.  Form  roundish- 
oblate-conical.  Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  mild  subacid.  Quality 
very  good.    Size  medium.    Season  very  late.    Use :  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Jefferis (Everbearing,  Grantham).  Originated  in  Pennsylvania.  Form  oblate- 
conical.  Color  yellowish-red  with  crimson  stripes.  Flavor  rich,  mild,  subacid. 
Quality  very  good  to  best.  Size  medium.  Season  medium  early.  Use:  dessert 
and  market. 

Jewett  Red  (Nodhead).  Originated  in  New  Hampshire.  Form  roundish- 
oblate.  Color  greenish-white  and  red  striped  with  crimson.  Flavor  pleasant, 
mild  subacid.   Quality  good  to  very  good.    Size  medium.    Season  medium  to  late. 

Jonathan  (New  Spitzenburg).  Originated  in  New  York.  Form  roundish- 
oblong-conical.  Color  yellowish  striped  and  blushed  with  red.  Flavor  mild 
subacid.  Quality  very  good  to  best.  Size  medium.  Season  medium  to  late. 
Use :  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 


470  THE  APPLE 

Lady  (Lady  Apple,  Pomme  dApi).  Originated  in  France.  Form  oblate. 
Color  pale-yellow  blushed.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good.  Size  very 
small.    Season  late.    Use :  dessert. 

Limbertwig  (Red  Limbertwig).  Probably  originated  in  North  Carolina. 
Form  roundish-oblate-conical.  Color  greenish-yellow  to  red  and  crimson. 
Flavor  acid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium.  Season  very  late.  Use :  dessert 
and  cooking. 

Livland  Raspberry  (Lowland  Raspberry).  Originated  in  Russia.  Form 
oblong-conical.  Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  mild  subacid.  Quality 
very  good.    Size  medium.    Season  medium  early.    Use  :  dessert  and  market. 

Longfield  (Good  Peasant).  Originated  in  Russia.  Form  roundish-oblong. 
Color  yellow  blushed.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium  to  large. 
Season  medium.    Use  :   cooking  and  market. 

Mcintosh  (Mcintosh  Red).  Originated  in  Ontario.  Form  roundish-oblate. 
Color  whitish-yellow  to  red  and  crimson.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good  to  very 
good.  Size  medium  to  large.  Season  medium  late.  LIse  :  dessert,  market,  and 
cooking. 

Magog  (Magog  Red  Streak).  Originated  in  Vermont.  Form  roundish- 
oblong.  Color  yellowish-red  striped.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size 
medium.    Season  late. 

Maiden  B/ns/i  (Maiden's  Blush).  Originated  in  New  Jersey.  Form 
roundish-oblate.  Color  pale-yellow  blushed.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good. 
Size  medium.    Season  medium.    Use :  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Mann  (Diltz).  Originated  in  New  York.  Form  roundish-oblate.  Color 
greenish-yellow.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium  to  large. 
Season  very  late.    Use  :  cooking  and  market. 

M inkier  (Mumper  Vandevere).  Probably  originated  in  Pennsylvania. 
Form  roundish-oblate-conical.  Color  greenish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor 
subacid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium.  Season  late.  Use :  dessert  and 
cooking. 

Missouri  (Missouri  Pippin).  Originated  in  Missouri.  Form  roundish-oblate. 
Color  whitish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  brisk  subacid.  Quality  good. 
Size  medium  to  large.    Season  late.    Use  :  cooking  and  market. 

Monmouth  (Red  Cheek  Pippin).  Originated  in  New  Jersey.  Form  oblate- 
conical.  Color  pale-yellow  blushed.  Flavor  brisk  subacid.  Quality  very  good 
to  best.    Size  large.    Season  medium  late.    Use :  dessert  and  cooking. 

Mother  (Gardener's  Apple).  Originated  in  Massachusetts.  Form  roundish- 
conical.  Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  rich  subacid.  Quality  best. 
Size  medium.    Season  medium  late.    LJse :  dessert. 

Newtown  Spitzenburg  (New  York  Vandevere).  Originated  in  New  York. 
Form  roundish-oblate-conical.  Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  rich, 
mild  subacid.  Quality  very  good  to  best.  Size  medium  to  large.  Season 
medium  late.    Use  :  dessert  and  cooking. 

Northern  Spy  (Spy).  Originated  in  New  York.  Form  roundish-oblate- 
conical.  Color  greenish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very 
good  to  best.    Size  large.    Season  late.    Use :  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 


VARIETIES  471 

Northwestern  (Northwestern  Greening).  Originated  in  Wisconsin.  Form 
round.  Color  yellowish-green.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size  large. 
Season  medium  late.    Use  :   market. 

Oldenburg  (Duchess  of  Oldenburg).  Originated  in  Russia.  Form  roundish- 
oblate.  Color  whitish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  brisk  acid.  Quality 
good.    Size  medium.    Season  medium  early.    Use:   cooking  and  market. 

Pewaukee.  Originated  in  Wisconsin.  Form  roundish-oblate.  Color  yellow 
striped  with  red.  Flavor  brisk  acid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium  to  large. 
Season  late.    Use  :  cooking. 

Porter  (Yellow  Summer  Pearmain).  Originated  in  Massachusetts.  Form 
oblong-conical.  Color  yellow.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good  to  best.  Size 
medium  to  large.   Season  medium  early.    Use :  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Primate  (Sour  Harvest).  Probably  originated  in  New  York.  Form  roundish- 
oblate-conical.  Color  greenish-white  blushed.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very 
good  to  best.    Size  medium.    Season  medium  early.    Use :  dessert. 

Ralls  (Janet,  Rawle's  Genet).  Probably  originated  in  Virginia.  Form 
oblate-conical.  Color  yellowish-red  striped  with  crimson.  Flavor  pleasant, 
subacid.  Quality  good  to  very  good.  Size  medium.  Season  very  late.  Use : 
dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Rambo  (Bread  and  Cheese).  Originated  in  Pennsylvania.  Form  roundish- 
oblate.  Color  yellowish-white  striped  with  red.  Flavor  rich,  mild  subacid. 
Quality  very  good.    Size  medium.    Season  medium.    Use  :  dessert  and  cooking. 

Red  Astrachan  (Abe  Lincoln).  Originated  in  Russia.  Form  roundish- 
conical.  Color  greenish-yellow  to  red  and  crimson.  Flavor  acid.  Quality  good 
to  very  good.  Size  medium  to  large.  Season  early.  Use :  dessert,  cooking, 
and  market. 

Red  Canada  (Canada  Red,  Steele's  Red).  Probably  originated  in  Con- 
necticut. Form  oblate-conical.  Color  yellowish-red  striped  with  crimson. 
Flavor  brisk  subacid.  Quality  very  good.  Size  medium.  Season  very  late. 
Use :  dessert  and  market. 

Red  June  (Carolina  Red  June).  Probably  originated  in  North  Carolina. 
Form  oblong-conical.  Color  yellowish-red  to  crimson.  Flavor  mild  subacid. 
Quality  good  to  very  good.  Size  medium  to  small.  Season  early.  Use  :  dessert 
and  market. 

Rhode  Island  Greening  (Greening).  Originated  in  Rhode  Island.  Form 
roundish-oblate-conical.  Color  pale  yellowish-green.  Flavor  brisk  acid.  Quality 
very  good.   Size  large.  Season  medium  late.  Use  :  dessert,  cooking,  and  market. 

Ribston  (Ribston  Pippin).  Originated  in  England.  Form  roundish-conical. 
Color  yellow  blushed  with  russet.  Flavor  acid.  Quality  very  good.  Size 
medium  to  large.    Season  late.    Use  :  dessert. 

Rome  Beauty  (Gillett's  Seedling).  Originated  in  Ohio.  Form  roundish- 
oblate-conical.  Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  pleasant  subacid.  Quality 
very  good.    Size  large.    Season  medium  late.    Use  :  dessert  and  market. 

Roxbury  (Roxbury  Russet).  Originated  in  Massachusetts.  Form  roundish- 
oblate.  Color  yellowish-russet.  Flavor  rich  acid.  Quality  good  to  very  good. 
Size  medium  to  large.    Season  very  late.    Use  :  cooking  and  market. 


472  THE  APPLE 

Scott  Winter  (Scott's  Winter).  Originated  in  Vermont.  Form  roundish- 
conical.  Color  red  striped.  Flavor  acid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium.  Season 
very  late.    Use  :  market  and  cooking. 

Shiawassee  (Michigan  Beauty).  Originated  in  Michigan.  Form  roundish- 
oblate.  Color  whitish-red  striped  with  crimson.  Flavor  brisk  subacid.  Quality 
very  good.    Size  medium.    Season  medium  late.    Use  :  dessert  and  market. 

Smith  Cider  (Smith's  Cider)  Originated  in  Pennsylvania.  Form  roundish- 
oblate-conical.  Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  pleasant,  mild  subacid. 
Quality  good.    Size  medium  to  large.    Season  medium  late.    Use  :   market. 

Sops  of  U  77/ e  (Sops  in  Wine).  Originated  in  Europe.  Form  round.  Color 
yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  pleasant  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium. 
Season  medium  early.    Use  :  dessert. 

Stark  (Robinson,  Yeats).  Originated  in  Ohio.  Form  roundish-conical. 
Color  greenish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  mild  subacid.  Quality  good. 
Size  large.    Season  late.    Use  :  cooking  and  market. 

Stayman  Winesap  (Stayman).  Originated  in  Kansas.  Form  oblate-conical. 
Color  greenish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  rich,  mild  acid.  Quality  very 
good.    Size  medium  to  large.    Season  late.    Use  :   dessert  and  market. 

Sutton  (Sutton's  Beauty).  Originated  in  Massachusetts.  Form  roundish- 
oblate-conical.  Color  pale  yellowish-red  striped  with  crimson.  Flavor  subacid. 
Quality  very  good.  Size  medium  to  large.  Season  medium  late.  Use  :  dessert, 
cooking,  and  market. 

Swaar  (Hardwick).  Originated  in  New  York.  Form  roundish-oblate. 
Color  greenish-yellow.  Flavor  rich  subacid.  Quality  very  good  to  best.  Size 
large.    Season  medium  late.    Use :  dessert  and  cooking. 

Tetofski  (Tetofsky).  Originated  in  Russia.  Form  roundish-oblate-conical. 
Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  acid.  Quality  good.  Size  medium  to 
small.    Season  medium  early.    Use  :   cooking  and  market. 

Tolman  (Tolman  Sweet).  Originated  in  Rhode  Island.  Form  roundish- 
conical.  Color  whitish-yellow  blushed.  Flavor  sweet.  Quality  very  good.  Size 
medium.    Season  very  late.    Use  :  dessert  and  cooking. 

Tompkins  King  (King  of  Tompkins  County).  Probably  originated  in  New 
York.  Form  oblate-roundish-conical.  Color  yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor 
subacid.   Quality  very  good.   Size  large.   Season  late.   Use  :  dessert  and  market. 

Twenty  Ounce  (Cayuga  Red  Streak).  Originated  in  Connecticut.  Form 
roundish-conical.  Color  greenish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  pleasant,  sub- 
acid.   Quality  good  to  very  good.    Size  very  large.    Season  medium  late. 

Wagener  (Wagener).  Originated  in  New  York.  Form  roundish-oblate. 
Color  yellowish-red  striped  with  crimson.  Flavor  brisk  subacid.  Quality  very 
good  to  best.  Size  medium  to  large.  Season  late.  Use :  dessert,  cooking,  and 
market. 

Wealthy.  Originated  in  Minnesota.  Form  roundish-oblate.  Color  whitish- 
red  striped  with  crimson.  Flavor  brisk  subacid.  Quality  very  good.  Size 
medium.    Season  medium.    Use  :  dessert  and  market. 

Westfield  (Westfield  Seek-no-further).  Originated  in  Connecticut.  Form 
roundish-conical.    Color  greenish-red  striped  with  russet.    Flavor  rich  subacid. 


VARIETIES  473 

Quality  very  good  to  best.  Size  large.  Season  medium  late.  Use :  dessert, 
cooking,  and  market. 

Williams  (Williams'  Favorite).  Originated  in  Massachusetts.  Form 
roundish-oblong-conical.  Color  dark  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  very  good. 
Size  medium  to  large.    Season  medium  early.    Use  :  market. 

Winesap  (Winter  Winesap).  Originated  in  New  Jersey.  Form  roundish- 
oblong-conical.  Color  dark-red  striped.  Flavor  mild  subacid.  Quality  very 
good.    Size  medium.    Season  very  late.    Use  :  dessert,  market,  and  cider. 

Wolf  River.  Originated  in  Wisconsin.  Form  roundish-oblate-conical. 
Color  greenish-yellow  striped  with  red.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good.  Size 
very  large.    Season  medium  late.    Use  :  cooking  and  market. 

Yellow  Newtown  (Albemarle,  Newtown  Pippin).  Originated  in  New  York. 
Form  roundish-oblong.  Color  greenish-yellow.  Flavor  brisk  acid.  Quality 
very  good  to  best.  Size  medium  to  large.  Season  very  late.  Use :  dessert, 
cooking,  and  market. 

Yellow  Transparent  (White  Transparent).  Originated  in  Russia.  Form 
roundish-oblate-conical.  Color  pale  yellow.  Flavor  subacid.  Quality  good  to 
very  good.  Size  medium.  Season  medium  early.  Use :  dessert,  cooking,  and 
market. 

York  Imperial  (Johnson's  Fine  Winter).  Originated  in  Pennsylvania. 
Form  roundish-oblate.  Color  white  striped  with  crimson.  Flavor  subacid. 
Quality  good  to  very  good.  Size  medium  to  large.  Season  medium  late. 
Use :  cooking  and  market. 

The  best  varieties  for  the  small  home  lot.  The  most  suitable 
varieties  for  planting  in  the  small  home  orchard  are  not  the  same 
for  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  six  best 
varieties  for  this  purpose,  grouped  by  sections.  In  each  case  the 
first  two  varieties  in  the  first  column  of  each  group  are  the  best. 

For  southern  Canada  ami  the  colder  parts  of  eastern  United  States  : 

Mcintosh  Yellow  Transparent 

Spy  Duchess 

King  Gravenstein 

For  New  England: 

< rravenstein  Yellow  Transparent 

Baldwin  Rhode  Island  (keening 

Red  Astrachan  Roxbury  Russet 

For  the  central  Atlantic  district ; 

Bough  Maiden  Blush 

York  Imperial  Red  Astrachan 

Crimes  Stayman  Winesap 


474 


THE  APPLE 


For  the  Middle  West : 
Jonathan 

Mammoth  Black  Twig 
Rome  Beauty 

For  the  Far  11  'est: 

Banana 
Esopus 
Rome  Beauty 


Red  Astrachan 

Winesap 

Yellow  Transparent 


Wagener 
Winesap 
Yellow  Newtown 


The  best  varieties  for  the  farm  or  commercial  orchard.  A  large 
number  of  varieties  are  suitable  for  farm  and  commercial  purposes. 
It  is  better,  however,  to  make  a  selection  from  varieties  that  have 
been  tested  in  the  locality  and  have  proved  profitable.  For  com- 
mercial planting  it  may  be  best  to  select  only  a  few  varieties, 
although  where  fillers  are  used  the  number  of  varieties  will  be 
increased. 


For  southern  Canada  and  the  c 

older  parts  of  the  I  Tnited  States  .■ 

Alexander 

Longfield 

Baldwin 

Mcintosh 

Blenheim 

Northwestern 

Blue  Pearmain 

Porter 

Duchess 

Red  Astrachan 

Fameuse 

Rhode  Island  Greening 

Gano 

Spy 

Gravenstein 

Tetofski 

Grimes 

Tolman 

Hubbardston 

Wealthy 

King 

Wolf  River 

Livland  Raspberry 

Yellow  Transparent 

For  New  England,  New  York. 

and  oilier  similar  locations  : 

Alexander 

Fameuse 

Baldwin 

Gano 

Ben  Davis 

( '.rimes 

Bethel 

Hubbardston 

Black  Gilliflower 

Jonathan 

Blue  Pearmain 

King 

Chenango 

Lady 

Duchess 

Mcintosh 

Early  Harvest 

Maiden  Blush 

Esopus 

Mann 

Fall  Pippin 

Peck 

VARIETIES 


475 


Red  Astrachan 

Red  Canada 

Rhode  Island  Greening 

Rome 

Roxbury  Russet 

Spy 

Swaar 

Twenty  Ounce 

The  leaders  of  the  above  varietn 

Baldwin 
King 

Mcintosh 


Wagener 
Wealthy 
Wolf  River 
Yellow  Bellflower 

Yellow  Newtown 

Yellow  Transparent 

And    some    others    in    particular 

locations. 


Twenty  Ounce 

Rhode  Island  Greening 


Spy 


For  the  Central  .  Ulantic  Stales 

Arkansas 

Ben  Davis 

Benoni 

Bough 

Buckingham 

Buncombe 

Chenango 

Early  Harvest 

Gano 

Golden  Sweet 

Gravenstein 

Grimes 

Ingram 

Jefferis 

Jonathan 

For  the  Middle  West; 

Arkansas 

Bailey  Sweet 

Ben  Davis 

Benoni 

Chenango 

Delicious 

Domine 

Fameuse 

Gano 

Golden  Sweet 

Grimes 

I  ngram 

Jefferis 


Limbertwig 

Maiden  Blush 

Missouri 

Oldenburg 

Ralls 

Rambo 

Red  Astrachan 

Red  June 

Rome  Beauty 

Stayman  Winesap 

Wealthy 

Winesap 

Yellow  Transparent 

York  Imperial 


Jonathan 

Mcintosh 

Maiden  Blush 

Minkler 

Missouri 

Northern  Spy 

Northwestern 

Oldenburg 

Stayman  Winesap 

Wealthy 

Winesap 

Yellow  Transparent 

York  Imperial 


'6 

THE  APPLE 

For  the  Far  J I  'est : 

Akin 

Longfield 

Alexander 

Mcintosh 

Arkansas 

Maiden  Blush 

Baldwin 

Mammoth 

Benoni 

Mother 

Ben  Davis 

Northern  Spy 

Delicious 

Oldenburg 

Early  Harvest 

Red  Astrachan 

Esopus 

Rhode  Island  Greening 

Fall  Pippin 

Rome  Beauty 

Fameuse 

Stay  man  Winesap 

Gano 

Wagener 

Gravenstein 

Wealthy 

Grimes 

Winesap 

Jefferis 

Yellow  Newtown 

Jonathan 

Yellow  Transparent 

King 

Varieties  for  the  local  market.  Many  more  varieties  in  each 
of  the  sections  mentioned  may  be  used  in  local-market  sales,  for 
consumers  can  be  educated  to  buy  almost  any  good  variety. 

Varieties  for  the  general  market.  As  a  rule,  it  is  far  better  to 
raise  only  a  few  varieties  for  the  general  market.  A  man  known 
for  his  Spies  is  much  more  certain  of  success  in  raising  only  these 
than  in  handling  many  varieties.  Many  dealers  who  have  an 
established  trade  in  one  or  two  kinds  of  apples  buy  no  others. 

Varieties  for  permanent  trees.  For  permanent  trees  select  vari- 
eties that  are  long-lived,  hardy,  sturdy  growers,  and  of  a  standard 
sort.  For  the  northeastern  states  such  varieties  as  Baldwin,  Rhode 
Island  Greening,  and  Spy  are  suitable.  Farther  south  Ben  Davis, 
Gano,  Grimes,  Missouri,  and  York  Imperial  are  the  kinds  that 
will  prove  satisfactory.  In  the  Middle  West  the  grower  may  choose 
Arkansas,  Ben  Davis,  Delicious,  Grimes,  Jonathan,  and  others, 
and  in  the  Far  West  he  may  take  Akin,  Banana,  Jonathan,  Rome 
Beauty,  Wagener,  and  Yellow  Newtown. 

Fillers.  For  fillers  always  select  varieties  that  are  known  to  pro- 
duce fruit  when  very  young  and  that  are  good  market  sorts.  The 
following  list  contains  many  that  are  desirable  but  are  given  only 
as  suggestions.  Each  locality  must  work  out  for  itself  a  list  of 
varieties  suitable  for  this  purpose. 


VARIETIES 


477 


For  cold  climates  : 
Duchess 
Fameuse 
Mcintosh 


Wealthy 
Wolf  River 


For  New  England,  New  York,  and  similar  localities : 

Duchess  Red  Astrachan 

Early  Harvest  Wealthy 

Fall  Pippin  Yellow  Transparent 

Mel  ntosh 


For  the  Central  .  Ulantic  States  : 
Bough 
Chenango 
Early  Harvest 

For  the  Middle  West: 
Bailey  Sweet 
Chenango 

For  the  Far  II 'est  : 
Early  Harvest 
Fall  Pippin 
Gravenstein 

Box  trade.  Only  apples  that  ar 
color,  of  fair  to  good  size,  and  of 
boxes.  Probably  the  best  varieties 
country  are  as  follows  : 

For  Canada  and  the  colder  parts  of . 
Blue  Pearmain 
Fameuse 
King 

For  New  England,  New  York,  etc.: 
Baldwin 
Blue  Pearmain 
Mcintosh 
Maiden  Blusli 
Northern  Spy 

For  the  Central  Atlantic  States  ; 
Gravenstein 
Grimes 
Jonathan 


Oldenburg 

Red  Astrachan 

Red  June  (and  others) 


Fameuse 

Golden  Sweet  (and  others) 

Mother 

Red  Astrachan 
(and  others) 

e  free  from  blemishes,  of  good 
good  shape  should  be  placed  in 
in  the  five  apple  sections  of  the 


England : 

Mcintosh 

Wealthy 

Yellow  Transparent 


Red  Astrachan 

Twenty  Ounce 

Wealthy 

Yellow  Transparent 


Red  Astrachan 
Stayman  Winesap 
York  Imperial 


478 


THE  APPLE 


For  the  Middle  West , 
Arkansas 
Delicious 
Fameuse 

For  the  Far  West: 

Arkansas 
Banana 
Delicious 
Fall  Pippin 
Grimes 


Jonathan 
Maiden  Blush 
Stayman  Winesap 


Jonathan 
Maiden  Blush 
Stayman  Winesap 
Wagener 
Yellow  Newtown 


The  individual  dessert  trade.  For  fruit  that  is  to  be  placed 
individually  in  small  paper  cartons  or  twelve  specimens  to  a  box, 
these  varieties  are  to  be  recommended  : 


For  Canada,  New  England,  and  New  York: 

Fameuse 
Mcintosh 
Yellow  Transparent 

For  the  Central  Atlantic  States  : 

Golden  Sweet 
Red  Astrachan 
Yellow  Transparent 


For  the  Middle  West. 
Bailey  Sweet 
Delicious 

For  the  Far  West: 
Banana 
Esopus 
Mother 


Golden  Sweet 
Maiden  Blush 


Rome  Beauty 
Yellow  Newtown 


Export  trade.  Almost  all  the  hardy  apples  are  suitable  for 
export  trade,  but  the  varieties  most  used  for  this  purpose  through- 
out the  country  are  the  Baldwin,  Northern  Spy,  Rhode  Island 
Greening,  and  Ben  Davis. 

Lately  some  of  the  Western  varieties,  such  as  Grimes,  Jonathan, 
Rome  Beauty,  Winesap,  Wagener,  and  Yellow  Newtown,  have  been 
demanded  in  different  foreign  countries.  As  this  export  trade  in- 
creases, others  will  be  introduced  and  a  demand  created  for  them. 


VARIETIES  479 

The  larger  part  of  the  export  trade  is  shipped  in  barrels,  but 
recently  boxes  have  been  used,  and  fruit  men  are  now  waiting  for 
the  general  approval  of  this  package. 

Varieties  for  storage.  In  the  following  list  the  date  indicates  the 
time  up  to  which  the  fruit  can  be  safely  kept  in  storage. 

Baldwin,  May  15. 

Ben  Davis,  July  1. 

Delicious. 

Fallawater,  April  1. 

Gano  (like  the  Ben  Davis,  a  good  long-keeping  apple). 

Grimes  Golden,  February  1  latest. 

Golden  Russet,  June  1. 

Jonathan  (an  excellent  storage  variety). 

King,  May  1. 

Lady  Sweet,  May  1. 

Limbertwig,  July  1. 

Mammoth  Black  Twig,  February  1  5  latest. 

Mann,  excellent  July  1. 

Minkler  (an  excellent  variety  for  cold-storage  purposes;  does  not  scald 
badly  or  shrivel). 

Northern  Spy,  April  1  5. 

Northwest  Greening  (requires  care  in  handling). 

Pewaukee,  May  15. 

Red  Canada,  May  1 . 

Rhode  Island  Greening,  April  1. 

Rome  Beauty,  May  1. 

Roxbury  Russet,  June  15. 

Scott  Winter,  April  1 . 

Stark,  July  1. 

Stayman  Winesap  (a  valuable  storage  variety  if  well  colored;  market 
March    17). 

Swaar,  May  1. 

Wealthy  (if  properly  ripened,  carefully  handled,  and  immediately  stored, 
can  be  kept  in  good  condition  until  May). 

Winesap  (when  properly  matured  a  valuable  apple,  whether  intended  for 
cold  storage  or  common  storage). 

Yellow  Newtown.  May  1 . 

Varieties  for  cider.  Almost  any  juicy  variety,  such  as  the 
Roxbury  Russet,  Smith  Cider,  Baldwin,  Mcintosh,  Wealthy,  Red 
Canada,  Winesap,  is  good  for  cider  making.  However,  early  varie- 
ties do  not  make  as  good  cider  as  late  ones,  and  yellow  apples  do 
not  give  as  good  color  to  the  cider  as  red  or  colored  varieties. 


480  THE  APPLE 

Varieties  for  drying.  For  drying,  the  variety  should  be  a 
hard-fleshed,  firm  apple  —  fall  apples  or  soft,  mushy  fruit  are 
not  desirable.  Baldwins,  Rhode  Island  Greenings,  and  all  that 
are  listed  above  under  "  Varieties  for  storage  "  are  satisfactory  for 
this  purpose. 

Strongly  colored  varieties.  The  following  are  among  the  sorts 
most  distinctly  and  solidly  colored  : 

Most  popular  red  apples  :  Some  good  combinations  of  colors  : 

Early  :   Red  Astrachan  Early :  Red  Astrachan 

Midseason  :   Mcintosh  Midseason  :   Fall  Pippin 

Late  :  Baldwin  Late  :  Yellow  Newtown 

Most  popular  green  apples  :  Early  :   Yellow  Transparent 

Midseason  :  Mcintosh 
Early  :   Bough  Late  .   Rhode  Is,and  Greening 

Midseason  :   Fall  Pippin 

Late:   Rhode  Island  Greening  Early  :   BouSh 

Midseason :  Grimes 

Most  popular  yellow  apples  :  Late:  Baldwin 

Early :   Yellow  Transparent 

Midseason  :   Grimes 

Late:  Yellow  Newtown 

Older  varieties.  Many  old  varieties  are  of  great  value  to  the 
home  growers  and  probably  to  the  local  trade.  Wherever  these 
older  varieties  are  growing,  it  is  highly  important  that  they  be 
tested  out  for  desirability. 

Newer  varieties.  Experiment  stations  and  the  government,  as 
well  as  some  private  individuals,  are  working  to  secure  new  vari- 
eties of  merit.  Probably  the  Geneva  Experiment  Station  has  pro- 
duced as  many  new  varieties  as  any  other  source.  A  new  variety 
should  possess  some  special  merit  before  being  considered  worth 
cultivating.  It  should  be  especially  desirable  because  of  size,  shape, 
color,  quality,  or  some  other  characteristic,  or  a  combination  of  these. 


APPENDIX 


TABLE   I.    AVERAGE   PRICES  OF  VARIETIES   BY   MONTHS: 


1893-1894  to  1902-1903 

Variety 

1 

1 

■a 

is 

3 

E 

c/j 

1 

0 

Z 

e 

> 

0 
2; 

E 

Q 

3 
c 

S 

.0 

-C 

D. 

<: 

g 

c 

3 

Alexander 

#2.l3 

$2-39 

52.77 

£2.75 

Fall  Pippin      .     . 

,.56 

,.89 

2 

°9 

,.08 

Kameuse     .     .     . 

2 

47 

2.92 

53-47 

Gravenstein    .     . 

I.82 

2.(6 

2 

"3 

Maiden  Blush 

I.64 

1.86 

2 

08 

Mcintosh  .     .     . 

Oldenburg  .     .     . 

'•99 

2.01 

1 

62 

Pound  Sweet  .     . 

2-75 

2 

00 

1.50 

1.25 

Twenty  ( >unce    . 

1.83 

i-93 

2 

°5 

2 

64 

Baldwin      .     .     . 

1-75 

1 

85 

2 

3° 

2.61 

#2.75 

#3-°3 

fc.«5 

53-45 

53-56 

53-57 

Pen  Davis  .     .     . 

2 

4' 

2 

46 

2.65 

2.67 

2.88 

3 

27 

3-53 

3-56 

3-42 

Ksopus  Spitzenburj, 

2 

91 

3 

°3 

3-34 

313 

3.61 

3 

,S 

3-9° 

3-29 

Northern  Spy 

1 

89 

2 

32 

2.47 

2.72 

3.00 

3 

06 

3-73 

3-40 

305 

Rhode  Island 

1.  go 

2 

01 

2 

43 

2.75 

2.91 

3-12 

3 

30 

3-7'' 

3-34 

Russet   .... 

2 

98 

2.83 

3-°7 

3.10 

Tompkins  King  . 

2-3' 

2.4S 

2.99 

2.99 

2.96 

3-38 

3 

03 

1.84 

1 

903 -19( 

4   TO  1 

912-191 

3 

Alexander 

3.08 

3-'S 

3.'8 

3-3° 

Kail  Pippin      .     . 

2-43 

2-43 

2 

52 

2.87 

Fameuse     .     .     . 

2 

82 

3.01 

2.56 

Gravenstein    .     . 

2.48 

2.62 

2 

64 

Maiden  Blush 

2.23 

2.41 

2 

42 

Mcintosh   .     .     . 

2-93 

3 

58 

3-64 

3-7° 

Oldenburg  .     .     . 

2.63 

2.72 

2 

9" 

Pound  Sweet  .     . 

1.68 

2 

02 

2-34 

2.37 

Twenty  Ounce     . 

2.46 

2-57 

2 

66 

.," 

Baldwin       .     .     , 

2.08 

2 

16 

2 

39 

2.54 

2.  So 

3->9 

3-4° 

3-64 

4.07 

403 

Ben  Davis .     .     . 

2 

44 

2 

41 

2.29 

2.47 

2.71 

3-21 

3 

25 

3.80 

3-94 

Ksopus  Spitzenburg 

2 

44 

2 

79 

2.87 

2.97 

3-57 

3-57 

3 

52 

4.02 

Northern  Spy 

2 

>7 

2 

69 

2.77 

2.87 

3-44 

3.60 

3 

85 

4-33 

4.51 

Rhode  Island 

2.09 

2 

3" 

2 

69 

2.96 

3-09 

324 

3-47 

3 

90 

4.0S 

Russet   .... 

2.79 

2 

79 

3-29 

3-44 

Tompkins  King  . 

2.6l 

2-79 

2.99 

3>3 

3-27 

3.58 

3-44 

3 

3° 

After  H.  B.  Knapp,  Ithaca,  N.V. 
481 


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APPENDIX 


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APPENDIX 


485 


1 

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486 


THE  APPLE 


TABLE  VI. 


AVERAGE  TRICE  OF  APPLES  IN  NEW   YORK  FOR 
TWENTY    VKARS' 


Total  receipts 
(barrels) 


Total  value 


Average  price 
per  barrel 


1 893-1 894 

1894-1895 
1895-1896 
[896-1897 
1897-1898 
[898-1899 
1899-1900 
1 900- 1 90 1 
1901-1902 
1902-1903 
1 903-1 904 
1 904- 1 90 5 
1905-1906 
1906-1907 
1907-1908 
190S-1909 
1909-191 o 
1910-191 1 
1911-1912 
1912-1913 


234,863 

526,338 

736487 

[,426,546 

650,686 
921,648 
895,967 
553,816 
1,540,005 


£805,873 
1,368,716 
1,627,907 
2,018,4 1 1 
2,336,934 

2,1  I(),021 
2.I4r.;2S 
2,238,004 
2,057,679 
1,196,294 


£343") 
2.60 


3-25 
2-33 

2.50 
3-72 
2.08 


i»2.62 


2,043,606 
1,865,459 
1,566,855 

2,227,577 

1,687,719 
[,858,267 

1,898,268 
1,932,327 
1,875, 168 
2,438,606 


4,880,324 

,895    S.| 

5,176,749 
5,889,810 

5,150,687 
5,992,356 
6,045,390 
6,904,624 
5,028,725 
6,320,766 


2-39 
2.09 
3-3° 
2.64 

3-o  5 
3.22 
3.1S 
3-57 


2.S7 


TABLE  VII.    STATEMENT  OF  CARLOADS  OF  APPLES  SHIPPED  ON 

NEW    YORK    CENTRAL   AND    HUDSON    RIVER    RAILROAD    FROM 

THE  WESTERN  NEW   YORK  STATE  FRUIT  BELT  IN  1909 


Shipments  from  the  stations  named  below 
at  which  there  are  no  storage  facilities,  con- 
sequently there  is  no  doubt  that  the  ship- 
ments originated  at  the  stations  named. 

Barker 573  cars 

Middleport 298  cars 

Brockport 295  cars 

Appleton 237  cars 

Holley 230  cars 

Spencerport 193  cars 

Ransomville 187  cars 

Kendall 181  cars 

Greece 144  cars 

Adam's  Basin 144  cars 

Morton 136  cars 

South  Greece 65  cars 

Total 2083  cars 

Figuring  175  barrels  to  the  car,  this  pro- 
duces a  total  of  469,525  barrels. 


Below  is  a  statement  of  the  number  of  cars 
shipped  during  the  year  1909  from  stations 
at  which  storage  warehouses  are  located. 

Albion 763  cars 

Lockport 72S  cars 

Hilton 563  cars 

Medina 551  cars 

Burt 541  cars 

Gasport 455  cars 

Carlton 222  cars 

Lyndonville 216  cars 

Hamilton 204  cars 

Ashwood 198  cars 

Le  Roy 196  cars 

Waterport 173  cars 

Total ^87o  cars 

Figuring  on  the  basis  of  175  barrels  per 
car,  this  produces  841,750  barrels. 


It  was  not  possible  to  obtain  statistics  which  would  indicate  what  proportion  of  the  apples 
shipped  from  stations  at  which  storage  houses  are  located  originated  in  the  vicinity  of  such 
stations  and  were  teamed  to  the  storage  warehouses,  and  the  proportion  shipped  from  near-by 
stations  to  the  storage  points  ;  and  consequently,  if  the  figures  for  this  latter  table  were  used, 
they  would  include  an  unknown  percentage  of  apples  which  may  have  been  shipped  from 
some  one  of  the  stations  shown  in  the  first  table  to  the  storage  points. 

The  total  for  the  twenty-four  Stations  is  yjgj  ears,  or  approximately  1,311,275  barrels. 

1  The  total  value  for  the  year  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  receipts  for  each  month  (Table  V)  by 
the  average  price  for  that  month  (Table  1  I  ).  The  total"  value  divided  by  the  total  receipts  gives  the 
average  price.  This  is  the  most  nearly  accurate  method  of  determining  the  price  with  the  figures  avail- 
able. No  price  was  obtained  for  July,  therefore  the  receipts  for  July  were  omitted.  This  was  neces- 
sary also  for  June,  1893-1894;  June,  1 894-1 895  ;  August,  1 907-1 908  ;  and  August,  1912-1913. 


APPENDIX 


487 


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APPLES 

Baltimore 
Boston- 
Buffalo 
Chicago 
Cincinnati 
Cleveland 
Columbus 
Denver 
Detroit 
Indianapolis 
Kansas  City 
Li  iiisville 
Memphis 
Milwaukee 
Mobile 
New  Orleans 
New  York 
Norfolk 
Omaha 
Peoria 
Philadelphia 
Pittsburgh 
Richmond 
St.  Louis 
St.  Paul 
Toledo 
Washington 

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INDEX 


Acidity  in  fruit,  increase  of,  6 

Albemarle  Pippin,  soils  for,  19 

Animals,  damage  by,  261 

Aphids  (lice),  174 

Aphis,   woolly,   180;  green-apple   leaf, 

[81 
Apple-bud  moth,  195 
Apple-leaf    spot,    220 ;    trumpet-miner, 

1S5 
Apple  scab,  217 

Apples,  varieties  of,  467.    See  Varieties 
Ashes,  wood,  experiments  with,  439 
Astringency,  increase  of,  in  apples,  6 
Auction,  selling  at,  321 

Baldwin,  soils  for,  12 
Barking  of  trees,  26r 
Basic-slag  meal,  effect  of,  on  color,  443 
Basin  method  of  irrigation,  147 
Ben  Davis,  soils  for,  14 
Bitter  rot,  211,  223 
Black  rot  and  canker,  212,  221 
Black  Twig,  Mammoth,  soils  for,  iS 
Bleaching,  362 
Blight,  pear,  210,  215 
Blister  canker,  213 
Blotch,  222 

Blue  Ridge  region,  44S 
Borers,  flat-headed,  172;  round-headed, 
173;    shot-hole,    174;    remedies    for, 

'74 
Breeding,  41S;  aim  in,  424 
Brown-tail  moth,  1S5 
Bud  moth,  195 

Budding,  407  ;  selection  in,  425 
By-products,  353 

<  lalcium  as  fertilizer,  104 

Canker,  212,  213 

Cankerworm,  1S4 

Cannery,  370 

Canning,  370 

Caterpillar,  tent,  185 

Cedar  rust,  215 

Check  method  of  irrigation,  147 

Choice  of  apples  in  different  markets 

of  the  United  States,  487 
Cider,     353;     preservation     of,     354; 

champagne,  355  ;  varieties  for,  479 


(  left-grafting,  410 

Climate  for  orchards,  1 

Codling  moth,  196 

Cold  storage,  houses  for,  340 ;  in  tran- 
sit, 349 

Color  in  fruit,  439,  480 ;  lack  of,  5, 
6 ;  influence  of  fertilizers  on,  439 ; 
conclusions  concerning,  447 

Cooperation,    372  ;     organizations    for, 

373 
I  (ists.  yields,  and  profits,  375 
Cover  crops,  91,  453;  benefits  of,  91  ; 
bad  effects  of,  92  ;   classification  of, 
93  ;  snow-holding  versus  mulch-form- 
ing,   93 ;    frost-killed    versus    frost- 
resisting,  94  ;  best,  95  ;  management 
of,  96 
Crops,  cover.    See  Cover  crops 
Crosses  in  breeding  apples,  423 
Cultivation,  113;   objects  of,  1 13  ;  tools 
for,   117;  method  and  time  of,  121; 
of    young    orchard,    121  ;    of    older 
trees,  122  ;  effect  of,  on  color,  443 
Curculio,  plum,  201 

Damage  to  trees,  260 

Decay,  214 

Deer,  injury  from,  264 

I  )escribing  fruit,  437  ;  blank  for,  438 

Dessert  trade,  varieties  for,  478 

Diseases,  209  ;  in  Northwest,  454 

Drainage,  9,  131  ;  promoted  by  cultiva- 
tion, 114;  in  irrigated  orchards,  155; 
in  unirrigated  orchards,  156 

Dropping,  premature,  7 

Drying,  crates  and  trays  for,  364  ;  racks 
for,  364;  by  kiln,  365,  366;  heat- 
ing apparatus  for,  365  ;  time  required 
for,  367  ;  curing  room,  36S  ;  varieties 
for,  480 

Dry  rot,  spongy,  227 

Duty  of  water  in  irrigating,  149; 
average,  1  50 

Dwarf  apple  trees,  39;  advantages  of, 
39 

Dynamite,  use  of,  in  digging  holes,  75, 
80  ;  how  exploded,  76  ;  preparation 
of,  76;  misfire  of,  79;  tamping  of, 
79  ;  cost  of,  for  planting,  Si 


489 


490 


THE  APPLE 


Elevation  for  orchard.  9 
Emasculation.  41S 
European  apple  canker.  213 
Evaporated    fruit,    358;    grading    and 

packing,  36S 
Evaporation    of    apples,    358;    apples 

suitable  for,  360 
Exhibits,  scoring,  judging,  describing, 

428 
Export,  328  ;  varieties  for,  47S 
Exposure,  meaning  of  term,  7 

Fall  Pippin,  soils  for,  15 

Fall  webworm,  1S4 

Fertilizer,  general,  for  apple  orchards, 
10S  ;  influence  of,  on  color,  439 

Fertilizing,  99 ;  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of,  99  ;  mineral  constitu- 
ents in,  100  ;  functions  and  effects  of 
minerals,  101  ;  what  to  use,  107  ; 
method  of  application,  109,  III ;  time 
of  application,  109;  need  of,  no; 
plan  of,  in 

First-class  stock,  36 

Flavor,  poor,  cause  of,  6 

Flumes,  head,  139 

Fly-speck  fungus,  226 

Frost,  effect  of,  in  spring,  3 

Fruit-growing  in  various  sections  of  the 
United  States,  448 

Fruit  Marks  Act,  465 

Fruit  spot,  225 

Furrows,  making,  143  ;  number  of,  143  ; 
water  in,  144 

Gano,  soils  for,  14 

Grading,   270;    rules  for,   271;    Sulzer 

Bill    for,     276;     methods    of,    281  ; 

machines  for,  285,  289 
Grafting,  408,  412  ;  time  for,  412  ;  wax 

for,  412  ;  scions  for,  413 
Green-fruit  worm,  205 
Grimes,  soils  for,  1  5 
Growers'  organizations,  373 
Gypsy  moth,  189 

Handling  of  trees  from  nurseryman,  42 
Harrowing  land  for  orchard,  56 
Harrows,  kinds  of,  119 
Head    ditches,    136;    constructor    for 

making,  136;  short  tubes  in,  137 
Head  flumes,  139 
Heaters  for  orchards,  27,  34;  types  of, 

27 ;    number    of,    per   acre,    28 ;    oil 

for,  29 
Heating  of  orchards,  27  ;  cost  of,  35 
Heeling  in  of  trees,  42 
Heredity,  effect  of,  on  color,  446 


Home  use,  apples  grown  for,  384 
llubbardston,  soils  for,  17 

Injuries,  miscellaneous,  260 
Insects,  170;  in  Northwest,  454 
Intercropping,    158;     crops    tor,    158; 

small  fruits  for,  160;  field  crops  for, 

162;    vegetables    for,    162;    rotation 

in,  163 
Iron,  as  fertilizer,    107  ;   effect  of,   on 

color,  445 
Irrigated  trees,  134 
Irrigation  (and  drainage),  131  ;  methods 

of,    136,    146,    147;    time    for,    148; 

frequency  of,  149;  winter,  153 

Jelly,  356 

Judging  fruit,  essentials  for,  437 

Kimball  cultivator,  120 

Kinds  of  apples,  467.    See  Varieties 

King,  soils  for,  17 

Land  for  orchard,  preparation  of,  53  ; 

plowing,  53  ;   rolling,  55  ;  harrowing, 

56  ;  tools  for,  57 
Laying  out  an  orchard,  58  ;  large,  58 ; 

staking,  59 ;  systems,  60 ;  trees  per 

acre,  66;  small,  69 
Leaf  crumpler,  182 
Leaf  roller,  183 
Leaf  skeletonizer,  183 
Lice,  174 

Light,  effect  of,  on  color,  444,  445 
Lime  (calcium)  as  fertilizer,  104 

Maggot,  207 

Magnesium  as  fertilizer,  106 

Mammoth  Black  Twig  (Arkansas),  18; 
soils  for,  18 

Manure,  stable,  for  orchard,  51 

Marketing,  314  ;  at  auction,  321  ;  on 
the  dock,  322  ;  New  York  apple 
market,  323  ;  by  jobber,  324  ;  retailer 
for,  324;  distribution  in,  326;  new 
markets  in,  327  ;  of  fancy  apples.  321) ; 
cost  of,  330  ;  in  Northwest,  456 ;  vari- 
eties for,  476 

Markets  in  the  United  States,  prefer- 
ences of,  for  different  varieties,  487 

Marmalade,  358 

Mealiness  in  fruit,  7 

Mice,  injury  by,  262 

Mildew,  215 

Moisture  conserved  by  cultivation,  113 

Moths,  brown-tail,  185;  gypsy,  189; 
apple-bud,  195;  bud,  195;  codling, 
,96 


INDEX 


491 


Neglected  orchards,  renovation  of, 
388 ;  diagnosis  for,  392 ;  treatment 
of,  392  ;  examples  of,  402 

Newtown  Pippin,  soils  for,  19  ;  Yellow, 
soils  for,  19 

New  York,  western,  apple-growing  in, 

457 

New  \  ork  City,  apple  market,  323; 
receipts  of  apples  in,  485,  480  ;  aver- 
age price  of  apples  in,  486 

Nitrogen,  as  fertilizer,  101  ;  effect  of, 
on  color,  443 

Northern  Spy,  soils  for,  21 

Northwest,  Pacific,  450 

Nova  Scotia  section,  464 

Nursery  stock,  36 

Oil  for  heating  orchards,  29;  storing, 
29;  distributing,  30  ;  lighting,  31 

Orchard  heating,  27 

Orchards,  climate  for,  1  ;  locating  site 
of,  2  ;  staking,  59;  systems  of  plant- 
ing, 60  ;  trees  per  acre,  66 

Ordering  trees,  41 

Organizations,  growers'  and  shippers', 

373 
•  >rigin  of  varieties,  467 
Ozark  region,  462 

Pacific  Northwest,  450;  tillage  in,  451  ; 
pruning  in,  452 

Packing,  293 ;  in  boxes,  294 ;  tables, 
299;  presses,  305,  312;  in  barrels, 
308;  labeling,  308";  cost  of,  312 

Palmer  worm,  18 4 

Paring  apples,  362 

Pear  blight,  210,  215 

Pear  thrips,  195 

Pedigree  trees,  40 

Percolation,  losses  caused  by,  153; 
studies  in,  1  54 

Phosphorus  as  fertilizer,  101 

Picking,  266 

Piedmont  region,  448 

Pink  rot,  227 

Pipes  and  standpipes,  141 

Pippin,  Albemarle  (Yellow  Newtown), 
soils  for,  19;  Fall,  soils  for,  15 

Planting,  fall  versus  spring,  71  ;  hand, 
73;  plowing  out  for,  74;  use  of  dy- 
namite in.  7  5 

Planting  board,  71  ;  use  of,  72 

Plow,  gang,  118;  landside,  117;  sulky, 
118 

Plowing  land  for  orchard,  53 

Plum  curculio,  201 

Pollen,  application  of,  421  ;  gathering 
of,  420;  when  to  apply,  422 


Pollination,  414 

Pomace,  356;  composition  of,  357 
Potassium  as  fertilizer,  103 
Precooling  of  apples,  349 
Premature  dropping,  7 
Preparation  of  land  for  orchard,  53 
Prices,  average,  by  months,  481 
Production  in  the   United   States,  316; 

by  states,  317 
Profits,  382 
Propagation,  407 
Pruning,  83  ;    effect  of,  90 ;    influence 

of,  in  "  off "  years,  90 ;  reasons  for, 

83  ;  of  roots,  85  ;  of  top,  85  ;  time  for, 

84,  87,  88,  89 
Psychrometer,  32 
Psychrometric  table,  33 

Rabbits,  injury  from,  264 

Regions,  Blue    Ridge,  448;    Piedmont, 

448;  Pacific  Northwest,  450;  Ozark, 

462  ;  Nova  Scotia,  464 
Renovating    neglected   orchards,   389 ; 

diagnosis   for,    392  ;  treatment,   392  ; 

examples  of,  402 
Ridger  used  in  basin  irrigation,  147 
Ripening,  uneven,  6 
Rolling  land  for  orchard,  55 
Rome  Beauty,  soils  for,  23 
Root  gall,  209 
Root-grafting,     408 ;     compared     with 

budding,  409 
Root  rot,  210 

Rot,  210,  211,  212,  214,  221,  223,  227 
Rust,  215 

Scab,  215,  217,  22i 

Scalding  of  apples,  337  ;  prevention  of, 

338 
Scale,  oyster-shell,  174;  .San  Jose,  175, 

391  ;  treatment,  175,  178 
Schellenberger  machine,  285 
Scions,  selection  of,  413 
Scoring  by  card  system,  433  ;  cards  for, 

434 
Seedlings,  407 
Selection  of  trees,  36 
Shippers'  organizations,  373 
Shipping,  318;   truck,  320 
Site    for    apple    orchard,    2 ;    effect  of 

high  or  low  summer  temperature  on, 

5 ;  effect  of  winter  temperature  on,  5 
Size  of  fruit  decreased,  6 
Size  of  trees,  proper,  t,j 
Slicing,  machines  for,  363 
Sod  culture  versus  tillage,  123;  relative 

merits  of ,  1  24 ;  experiment  concerning, 

125;  general  advice  concerning,  130 


492 


THE  APPLE 


Soil,  effect  of,  8  ;  kinds  of,  8  ;  improved 
by  cultivation,  115;  water  in,  8 

Solids,  insoluble,  increase  in,  6 

Sooty  blotch,  226 

Spongy  dry  rot,  227 

Spot,  225 

Spraying,  230  ;  need  of,  233  ;  materials 
for,  234  ;  time  for,  243  ;  how  to  apply, 
246 ;  machinery  for,  249 ;  results  of, 
257  ;  cost  of,  258 

Stable  manure  for  orchard,  51 

Standards  versus  dwarfs,  39 

Standpipes,  141  ;   section  of,  143 

Stayman  Winesap,  soils  for,  24 

Sterile  trees,  414 

Stock,  first-class,  36 

Storage,  233 '■>  temperature  for,  334; 
time  for,  335 ;  buildings  for,  339 ; 
systems  of,  341  ;  section  of  building 
for,  346  ;  ventilation  in,  348  ;  cooper- 
ation in,  351  ;  varieties  for,  479 

Sulzer  Bill,  276 

Sunlight,  effect  of,  on  color,  445 

Temperature,  predicting,  31  ;  records 
of,  4  ;  summer,  5  ;  winter,  5 

Tent  caterpillar,  185 

Thermometers  for  orchards,  34 

Thinning,  164;  benefits  from,  166; 
cost  of,  167;  methods  of,  166;  time 
for,  167;  increase  in  value  due  to, 
16S 

Thrips,  pear,  195 

Tompkins  King,  soils  for,  17 

Trees,  selection  of,  36 


Trimming  apples,  362 
Trumpet-miner,  185 

Variation,  effect  of,  on  color,  446 
Varieties,  467  ;  adaptation  of,  to  soils, 
10;  description  of,  467;  for  small 
house  lot,  473 ;  for  farm  or  com- 
merce, 474;  for  market,  476;  for 
permanent  trees,  476;  for  dessert 
trade,  478 ;  for  export,  478 ;  for 
cider,  479  ;  for  drying,  479  ;  newer, 
480;  older,  480;  strongly  colored,  480 
Vinegar,  355  ;  waste  for,  368 

Wagener,  soils  for,  24 

Water,   effect    of   large  bodies   of,   on 

climate,  2  ;  in  soil,  8  ;  supply  of,  for 

orchards,  131 
Watering  trees,  caution  about,  82 
Weeds  killed  by  cultivation,  116 
Weevil,  202 
Whip-grafting,  410 
Wind,  injury  by,  261 
Windbreaks,    43 ;    advantages    of,    43 ; 

disadvantages  of,  46  ;  where  to  plant, 

47  ;  trees  for,  48  ;  when  to  use,  50 
Winesap,  soils  for,  25;  Stayman,  soils 

for,  24 
Woods  grading  machine,  289 
Woolly  aphis,  180;  treatment  of,  180 
Worm,  green-fruit,  205 

Yellow  Newtown  Pippin,  soils  for,  19 
Yields  of  apples,  378 
York  Imperial,  soils  for,  25 


ANNOUNCEMENTS 


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